Table 2. Associations Between Hearing Impairment, Cardiovascular Risk, and Cognitive Functioninga.
| Variable | B [95% CI] | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| M1 | M2 | M3 | M4 | |
| B-SEVLT-sum | ||||
| High CVDR | –0.21 (–0.31 to –0.10) | NA | –0.19 (–0.29 to –0.08) | –0.16 (–0.26 to –0.06) |
| Hyperglycemia | –0.09 (–0.19 to –0.00) | NA | –0.08 (–0.17 to 0.01) | –0.04 (–0.13 to 0.04) |
| Healthy | [Reference] | NA | [Reference] | [Reference] |
| Typical | –0.05 (–0.11 to 0.01) | NA | –0.04 (–0.10 to 0.01) | –0.04 (–0.09 to 0.01) |
| ≤25 dB (normal) | NA | [Reference] | [Reference] | [Reference] |
| >25 dB (mild or more) | NA | –0.15 (–0.22 to –0.09) | –0.15 (–0.21 to –0.08) | –0.12 (–0.18 to –0.05) |
| Intercept | 1.08 (0.90 to 1.26) | 1.04 (0.86 to 1.22) | 1.00 (0.81 to 1.18) | 1.08 (0.89 to 1.26) |
| B-SEVLT-recall | ||||
| High CVDR | –0.19 (–0.30 to –0.08) | NA | –0.18 (–0.29 to –0.07) | –0.16 (–0.26 to –0.05) |
| Hyperglycemia | –0.04 (–0.12 to 0.05) | NA | –0.03 (–0.11 to 0.06) | 0.00 (–0.08 to 0.09) |
| Healthy | [Reference] | NA | [Reference] | [Reference] |
| Typical | –0.06 (–0.11 to –0.00) | NA | –0.06 (–0.11 to –0.00) | –0.05 (–0.11 to –0.00) |
| ≤25 dB (normal) | NA | [Reference] | [Reference] | [Reference] |
| > 25 dB (mild or more) | NA | –0.10 (–0.16 to –0.04) | –0.10 (–0.16 to –0.03) | –0.07 (–0.13 to –0.00) |
| Intercept | 1.02 (0.85 to 1.20) | 1.01 (0.84 to 1.19) | 0.98 (0.80 to 1.16) | 0.99 (0.81 to 1.18) |
| Word fluency | ||||
| High CVDR | –0.25 (–0.37 to –0.13) | NA | –0.23 (–0.35 to –0.12) | –0.21 (–0.33 to –0.10) |
| Hyperglycemia | –0.16 (–0.27 to –0.05) | NA | –0.15 (–0.25 to –0.04) | –0.12 (–0.23 to –0.01) |
| Healthy | [Ref] | NA | [Reference] | [Reference] |
| Typical | –0.11 (–0.18 to –0.04) | NA | –0.11 (–0.18 to –0.04) | –0.10 (–0.17 to –0.03) |
| ≤25 dB (normal) | NA | [Reference] | [Reference] | [Reference] |
| >25 dB (mild or more) | NA | –0.13 (–0.20 to –0.07) | –0.12 (–0.19 to –0.06) | –0.10 (–0.17 to –0.04) |
| Intercept | –0.15 (–0.37 to 0.08) | –0.22 (–0.43 to –0.01) | –0.22 (–0.45 to 0.00) | –0.34 (–0.55 to –0.12) |
| Digit symbol substitution | ||||
| High CVDR | –0.12 (–0.22 to –0.03) | NA | –0.12 (–0.21 to –0.02) | –0.08 (–0.17 to 0.00) |
| Hyperglycemia | –0.13 (–0.22 to –0.04) | NA | –0.12 (–0.21 to –0.03) | –0.09 (–0.17 to –0.00) |
| Healthy | [Reference] | NA | [Reference] | [Reference] |
| Typical | –0.08 (–0.13 to –0.02) | NA | –0.08 (–0.13 to –0.02) | –0.07 (–0.12 to –0.02) |
| ≤25 dB (normal) | NA | [Reference] | [Reference] | [Reference] |
| >25 dB (mild or more) | NA | –0.06 (–0.12 to –0.00) | –0.06 (–0.11 to 0.00) | –0.04 (–0.09 to 0.02) |
| Intercept | 1.32 (1.13 to 1.51) | 1.25 (1.08 to 1.43) | 1.28 (1.09 to 1.47) | 1.05 (0.87 to 1.22) |
| Global cognition | ||||
| High CVDR | –0.19 (–0.27 to –0.12) | NA | –0.18 (–0.26 to –0.10) | –0.16 (–0.23 to –0.08) |
| Hyperglycemia | –0.10 (–0.17 to –0.03) | NA | –0.09 (–0.16 to –0.02) | –0.06 (–0.13 to 0.01) |
| Healthy | [Reference] | NA | [Reference] | [Reference] |
| Typical | –0.07 (–0.11 to –0.03) | NA | –0.07 (–0.11 to –0.03) | –0.07 (–0.10 to –0.03) |
| ≤25 dB (normal) | NA | [Reference] | [Reference] | [Reference] |
| >25 dB (mild or more) | NA | –0.11 (–0.16 to –0.07) | –0.11 (–0.15 to –0.06) | –0.08 (–0.13 to –0.04) |
| Intercept | 0.83 (0.69 to 0.97) | 0.78 (0.65 to 0.91) | 0.77 (0.63 to 0.91) | 0.71 (0.58 to 0.84) |
Abbreviations: B, unstandardized coefficient estimate; B-SEVLT, Brief–Spanish English Verbal Learning Test; CVDR, cardiovascular disease risk; dB, decibels; NA, not applicable.
a
All cognitive tests are normalized, and associations should be interpreted in z-score units. M1, M2, and M3 are age, sex, education, and Field Center adjusted, respectively. M4 includes additional adjustment for Hispanic/Latino background, income, marital status, and depressive symptoms.