Table 2.
Multilayered chondral scaffolds
| Authors | Year | Structure |
Preparation | Biomimetic contents | Study | References | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Top | Middle | Bottom | ||||||||
| Cell-seeded scaffolds | ||||||||||
| Kim et al. | 2003 | PEGDA hydrogel with superficial-zone chondrocytes | PEGDA hydrogel with middle-zone chondrocytes | PEGDA hydrogel with deep-zone chondrocytes | Polymerization under UVA lamp | Cell phenotype | In vitro | [43] | ||
| Ren et al. | 2016 | Col II hydrogel, 2 × 107 cells/ml | Col II hydrogel, 1 × 107 cells/ml | Col II hydrogel, 0.5 × 107 cells/ml | 3DBP | Cell density | In vitro | [44] | ||
| Mauck et al. | 2017 | HyA hydrogel/superficial-zone chondrocytes/MSCs | HyA hydrogel/middle-zone chondrocytes/MSCs | HyA hydrogel/deep-zone chondrocytes/MSCs | Polymerization under UVA lamp | Cell phenotype | In vitro | [45] | ||
| Cell-free scaffolds | ||||||||||
| Nguyen et al. | 2011 | PEG: CS: MMP-pep | PEG: CS | PEG: HA | Polymerization under UVA lamp | Matrix composition | In vitro | [46, 47] | ||
| Camarero-Espinosa et al. | 2016 | PLA with parallel tubular pores | PLA and sulphated CNCs | PLA and phosphated CNCs with orthogonal pores | TIPS | Matrix composition; fibril orientation | In vitro | [48] | ||
| Parratt et al. | 2017 | PEGDA/HAMA | PEGDA/CSMA/HAMA | PEGDA/CSMA | Layer-by-layer assembly method | Matrix composition | In vitro | [49] | ||
| Owida et al. | 2018 | HyA hydrogel/aligned PLA nanofibres | HyA hydrogel/random PLA nanofibres | HyA hydrogel/vertical channels | Layer-by-layer assembly method | Fibril orientation | In vitro | [50] | ||
| Girão et al. | 2018 | Horizontal electrospun PCL | Random electrospun PCL | Vertically aligned electrospun PCL /GO-collagen | Electrospinning; freezing | Fibril orientation | In vitro | [51] | ||
| Gegg et al. | 2019 | 100Gel:0CS μRB (aligned+ unaligned) | 90Gel:10CS unaligned μRB | 75Gel:25CS unaligned μRB | Polymerization under UVA lamp | Matrix composition; fibril orientation; pore properties | In vitro | [52] | ||
| Munir et al. | 2020 | Aligned electrospun PCL | Random electrospun PCL | Cryo-printed helical PCL | Cryo-printing; electrospinning | Fibril orientation | In vitro | [53] | ||
PEGDA, poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate; 3DBP, 3D bioprinting; HyA, hyaluronic acid; MSCs, mesenchymal stem cells; PEG, polyethylene glycol; CS, chondroitin sulphate; MMP-pep, matrix metalloproteinase-sensitive peptides; PLA, poly(d,l-lactide); CNCs, cellulose nanocrystals; TIPS, thermally induced phase separation; HAMA, methacrylated hyaluronic acid; CSMA, methacrylated chondroitin sulphate; PCL, polycaprolactone; GO, graphene oxide; μRB, microribbon.