Table 2.

Overview of peripheral hormone response during starvation, protein malnutrition, and cachexia

	Starvation	Protein malnutrition	Cachexia
Cortisol	Increased 63	Increased 207 , 208	Increased 96 , 209
Thyroid hormone	Decreased 210 , 211 , 212	Decreased 213	Increased a 143
Parathyroid hormone	Increased 214	Increased 215	Increased 138 , 216
Renin–angiotensin aldosterone	Increased 217 , 218	Increased; minimal excretion 219	Increased 220 , 221
Norepinephrine	Increased peripherally 222 ; reduced action centrally 223	Increased peripherally; reduced action centrally 224	Increased 221
Growth hormone	Increased 61 , 62	Increased 225	Increased 226
Insulin	Decreased 222 , 227	Increased 228	Decreased a 221 , 229 , 230 , 231 ; impaired secretion
IGF1	Decreased 232	Decreased 233	Decreased 234

Data are compared with healthy (all human studies) or pair‐fed controls. Trends reported from human studies are italicized.

^aCompared with non‐cachectic cancer patients.