Table 2.
Association of previously administered medications with the risk of COVID-19 among tested individuals.
| Drug | Case (N = 7341) |
Control (N = 36705) |
Crude |
Adjusted |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) |
P | OR (95% CI) |
P | |||
| Drugs commonly used for chronic conditions | ||||||
| Angiotensin receptor blockers | 835 (11.37) | 4106 (11.19) | 1.02 (0.94–1.10) | 0.64 | 1.02 (0.90–1.15) | 0.75 |
| Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors | 42 (0.57) | 129 (0.35) | 1.63 (1.15–2.32) | 0.006 | 1.50 (1.00–2.24) | 0.05 |
| Metformin | 329 (4.48) | 1545 (4.21) | 1.07 (0.95–1.21) | 0.29 | 0.96 (0.82–1.12) | 0.58 |
| Thiazolidinedione | 51 (0.69) | 234 (0.64) | 1.09 (0.81–1.48) | 0.58 | 1.17 (0.83–1.65) | 0.36 |
| Statins | 960 (13.08) | 4762 (12.97) | 1.01 (0.94–1.09) | 0.81 | 0.95 (0.86–1.05) | 0.28 |
| NSAIDs | 1216 (16.56) | 5864 (15.98) | 1.05 (0.98–1.12) | 0.26 | 1.04 (0.97–1.12) | 0.30 |
| Drugs with potential therapeutic effect | ||||||
| Hydroxychloroquine | 17 (0.23) | 105 (0.29) | 0.81 (0.48–1.35) | 0.42 | 0.94 (0.53–1.66) | 0.82 |
| Camostat | 3 (0.04) | 29 (0.08) | 0.52 (0.16–1.70) | 0.28 | 1.14 (0.31–4.18) | 0.84 |
| Ciclesonide | 2 (0.03) | 3 (0.01) | 3.35 (0.56–20.04) | 0.19 | 4.96 (0.68–36.39) | 0.12 |
| Other inhaled steroids | 29 (0.40) | 201 (0.55) | 0.72 (0.49–1.06) | 0.09 | 0.94 (0.62–1.43) | 0.76 |
| Azithromycin | 11 (0.15) | 103 (0.28) | 0.53 (0.29–0.99) | 0.03 | 0.58 (0.30–1.12) | 0.10 |
| Sirolimus | 1 (0.01) | 3 (0.01) | 1.67 (0.17–16.04) | 0.66 | 2.27 (0.16–31.36) | 0.54 |
| Mycophenolate | 5 (0.07) | 59 (0.16) | 0.42 (0.17–1.06) | 0.07 | 0.51 (0.19–1.36) | 0.18 |
| Amiodarone | 5 (0.07) | 68 (0.19) | 0.37 (0.15–0.91) | 0.03 | 0.41 (0.16–1.09) | 0.07 |
| Demographic | ||||||
| Male sex | 2970 (40.46) | 14882 (40.54) | 1.00 (0.95–1.05) | 0.89 | 0.97 (0.91–1.02) | 0.22 |
| Age, mean (SD), y | 47.05 (18.99) | 47.27 (19.65) | 0.38 | 1.00 (0.99–1.00) | <0.001 | |
| Daegu/Gyeongsangbuk–do | 4027 (54.86) | 5601 (15.26) | 6.75 (6.39–7.12) | <0.001 | 6.77 (6.41–7.16) | <0.001 |
| Coverage for low–income households | 619 (8.43) | 3034 (8.27) | 1.02 (0.93–1.12) | 0.64 | 1.09 (0.98–1.21) | 0.11 |
| Comorbidities | ||||||
| Charlson comorbidity index, mean (SD) | 1.23 (1.65) | 1.21 (1.65) | 0.34 | |||
| Diabetes | 1179 (16.06) | 5673 (15.46) | 1.05 (0.98–1.12) | 0.19 | 1.16 (1.04–1.28) | 0.005 |
| Hypertension | 1576 (21.47) | 7973 (21.72) | 0.99 (0.93–1.05) | 0.63 | 1.05 (0.95–1.17) | 0.35 |
| Chronic heart disease | 575 (7.83) | 2661 (7.25) | 1.09 (0.99–1.19) | 0.08 | 1.36 (1.21–1.53) | <0.001 |
| Chronic lung disease | 1464 (19.94) | 7729 (21.06) | 0.93 (0.88–0.99) | 0.03 | 1.07 (1.00–1.16) | 0.05 |
| Asthma and allergic rhinitis | 4342 (59.15) | 21945 (59.79) | 0.97 (0.93–1.03) | 0.31 | 1.06 (1.00–1.13) | 0.04 |
| Chronic liver disease | 1519 (20.69) | 7215 (19.66) | 1.07 (1.00–1.14) | 0.04 | 1.13 (1.04–1.21) | 0.003 |
| Chronic kidney disease | 202 (2.75) | 915 (2.49) | 1.11 (0.95–1.29) | 0.20 | 1.40 (1.17–1.67) | <0.001 |
| Malignancy | 320 (4.36) | 1654 (4.51) | 0.97 (0.86–1.09) | 0.58 | 1.46 (1.27–1.69) | <0.001 |
| RA, SLE, GCA, and JIA | 214 (2.92) | 993 (2.71) | 1.08 (0.93–1.25) | 0.32 | 1.19 (1.00–1.42) | 0.05 |
| Other connective tissue disease | 22 (0.30) | 171 (0.47) | 0.64 (0.41–1.00) | 0.05 | 0.78 (0.48–1.26) | 0.31 |
| Chronic neurologic disease | 1001 (13.64) | 4834 (13.17) | 1.04 (0.97–1.12) | 0.28 | 1.14 (1.04–1.25) | 0.007 |
| Pancreatitis | 120 (1.63) | 1068 (2.91) | 0.56 (0.46–0.67) | <0.001 | 0.74 (0.60–0.91) | 0.005 |
| Healthcare utilization | ||||||
| Number of hospitalizations, mean (SD) | 0.25 (0.90) | 0.48 (1.45) | <0.001 | 0.892 (0.86–0.93) | <0.001 | |
| Number of outpatient visit, mean (SD) | 17.19 (21.38) | 20.59 (25.37) | <0.001 | 0.99 (0.99–0.99) | <0.001 | |
| Number of ED visit, mean (SD) | 0.12 (0.47) | 0.30 (1.52) | <0.001 | 0.67 (0.63–0.72) | <0.001 | |
Abbreviations: OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; NSAID, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug; RA, rheumatoid arthritis; SLE, systemic lupus erythematosus; GCA, giant cell arteritis; JIA, juvenile idiopathic arthritis; ED, emergency department.