Table 1.

Commonly used prebiotics for intestinal health.

Prebiotics	Subjects	Dosage	Duration	Outcomes	References
FOS	Methionine-choline deficient C57BL/6J mice	5%	3 wk	↑ Villus height, small intestine length, ZO-1, SCFA ↑ Lactobacillus spp. ↓ Clostridium spp.	Matsumoto et al. (2017)
FOS	7-wk-old male C57BL/6J mice	5% and 25%	4 wk	↑ Bifidobacterium, Coprococcus, Enterococcus, and Blautia, ↓ Firmicutes ↑ SCFA production	Mao et al. (2018)
FOS	3-wk-old male Sprague–Dawley rats	10%	2 wk	↑ Cecum Bifidobacterium ↓ Cecum Lactobacillus ↑ Propionate, n-butyrate and total SCFA	Yamaguchi et al. (2018)
FOS	10-wk-old C57BL/6J mice	0.3 g/mouse	8 wk	↑ Expression of intectin, regenerating islet-derived protein 3-gamma ↓ Firmicutes-to-Bacteroidetes ratio, Lactobacillus, Coprococcus, Eubacterium, Allobaculum, Turicibacter	Everard et al. (2014)
FOS	3-wk-old female C57BL/6J mice	8 g/kg BW	2 wk	↑ Intestinal expression of IL-23, IL-1β, mucosal mast cell, SCFA production	Chen et al. (2017)
FOS	Salmonella challenged laying hens	0.5% and 1.0%	3 wk	↑ IL-1β, IL-18, and IFN-γ ↓ Salmonella	Adhikari et al. (2018)
FOS	Dogs	1.5 g/kg	4 wk	↑ Bifidobacteria, acetic-to-propionic acid ratio ↓ pH in faces, acetic + n-butyric acid-to-propionic acid ratio	Pinna et al. (2018)
FOS	Weaned piglets	0.6%	7 d	↑ Bifidobacteria, Lactobacillus in jejunum ↑ IFN-γ ↓ Proteobacteria in jejunum and ileum ↓ IL-4, IL-10	Chang et al. (2018)
scFOS	18-wk-old obese male C57BL/6J mice	10%	4 wk	↑ Cecal and colonic crypt depth, transmural resistance ↑ Actinobacteria, Verrucomirobia	Liu et al. (2016)
scFOS	Humanized Gnotobiotic diet induced obese mice	10%	7 wk	↑ Bifidobacteria ↑ Full cecum weight, empty cecum weight ↓ Clostridium spp.	Respondek et al. (2013)
scFOS	Adult pigs and offspring piglets	Adult pigs (10 g/d), weaning piglets (0.15%)	4 wk	↑ Bacteroidetes, Prevotella, Bacteroidales, Ruminococcaceae ↓ Firmicutes ↑ Total concentration of SCFA	Le Bourgot et al. (2018)
GOS	Humans	0 to 10 g/d	16 wk	↑ Actinobacteria, bifidobacteria, Firmicutes	Davis et al. (2011)
FOS, GOS	Humans	16 g/d	2 wk	↑ Bifidobacterium ↓ Ruminococcus, Phascolarctobacterium, Coprococcus, Oscillopira, Salmonella, Enterobacter	Liu et al. (2017)
α-GOS	Fifty-six-wk old male CD-1 (ICR) IGS mice	0.083, 0.42, and 0.83 g/(kg·d)	6 wk	↑Bifidobacteria, lactobacilli, Clostridium leptum ↑ SCFA	Dai et al. (2017)
GOS	4-wk-old male Wister rat	1%	2 wk	↑ Bifidobacteria in large intestine, Bifidobacterium animalis, Eubacterium rectale/Clostridium coccoides in cecum and colon ↓ C. leptum in cecum	Marin-Manzano et al. (2013)
GOS	SPF mice	1%	2 wk	↑ Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Bacteroides, Clostridiales ↓ Bacteroidales, Helicobacter, Clostridium	Monteagudo-Mera et al. (2016)
scGOS	Humans	1.5 to 15 g/d	36 d	↑ Bifidobacterium, Faecalibacterium, Lactobacillus	Azcarate-Peril et al. (2017)
GOS	Suckling piglets	1 g/kg BW	3 wk	↑ intestinal length, ZO-1, TGF-β, GLP-2 ↓ Crypt depth in jejunum, IL-12	Tian et al. (2018)
High-purity GOS	In vitro and in vivo	1%	5 wk	↑ Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium longum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei	Hong et al. (2016)
scGOS/lcFOS	IL-1Ra deficient mice	1% to 5% (90% scGOS and 10% lcFOS)	8 to 10 wk	↑ Lachnospiraceae and Lactobacillus ↓ Enterococcus and Clostridium	Rogier et al. (2019)
COS	Weaned piglets	100 mg/kg		↑ Bifidobacterium ↑ Villus height, tight junction protein, IL-6, TNF-α ↓ Escherichia coli	Wan et al. (2017)
COS	Weaned piglets	30 mg/kg	2 wk	↑ Intraepithelial lymphocytes number, goblet cells, IL-10, secretory immunoglobulin, ZO-1 ↓ Villus height, villus height-to-crypt depth ratio	Xiong et al. (2015)
COS	E. coli K88+ challenged piglets	400 mg/kg	2 wk	↑ Villus height, villus height-to-crypt depth ratio ↓ Crypt depth	Aluko et al. (2017)
COS	ICR male mice	1 to 100 mg/(kg·d)	2 wk	↑ Colon length, epithelial architecture ↓ Mucosal injury, TNF- α, IL-6	Yousef et al. (2012)
COS	Wild-type male C57BL/6J mice	200 mg/(kg·d)	3 mo	↑ Akkermansia, Lachnospiraceae ↓ Helicobacter, Ruminococcus, Lachnospiraceae NK4A136, Odoribacter ↑ Tight junction ZO-1, ↓ TNF-α, MCP-1 (a macrophage biomarker)	Zheng et al. (2018b)
AOX and inulin	In vitro	5 g/L	48 h	↑ Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides, Prevotella ↑ Acetate, propionate, butyrate, IL-6, IL-10 ↓ Colonic pH	Van den Abbeele et al. (2018)
AOX, XOS	In vitro	5 g/L	48 h	↑ Bififdobacterium adolescentis, Lactobacillus brevis ↓ pH	Mathew et al. (2018)
XOS	Humans	1.2 g/d	6 wk	↑ Lactobacillus spp., Bifidobacterium spp. ↓ Clostridium perfringens	Lin et al. (2016)
XOS	Pigs	200 mg/kg	4 wk	↑ Villus height-to-crypt ratio ↑ Lactobacilli ↓ E. coli	Liu et al. (2018)
XOS	Pigs	100 to 500 g/t	70 d	↓ Proteobacteria, Citrobacter ↑ Firmicutes, Lactobacillus, SCFA	Pan et al. (2019)
XOS	Weaned piglets	0.01%	Weaned	↑ Streptococcus, Turicibacter, ZO-1 ↓ Lactobacillus, IFN-γ	Yin et al. (2019)
XOS	Laying hens	0 to 0.05%	8 wk	↑ Villus height, villus height-to-crypt depth ratio, SCFA, TNF- α, IL-2 ↑ Bifidobacteria	Ding et al. (2018)
XOS, MOS	Arbor Acres male broiler chickens	XOS at 2 g/kg, MOS at 1 g/kg	5 d	↑ Coprococcus, Ruminococcus, Enterococcus, Clostridium, Lactobacillus, Roseburia ↑ TNF-α ↓ Salmonella	Pourabedin et al. (2017)

FOS = fructo-oligosaccharides; ZO = zonula occludens; SCFA = short-chain fatty acids; IFN = interferon; scFOS = short-chain FOS; GOS = galacto-oligosaccharides; TGF-β = transforming growth factor-β; scGOS = short-chain GOS; GLP-2 = glucagon-like peptide-2 lcFOS = long-chain FOS; COS = chito-oligosaccharides; MCP = monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; TNF = tumor necrosis factor; IL = interleukin; AOS = alginate oligosaccharides; XOS = xylo-oligosaccharides; MOS = mannan-oligosaccharides.

“↑” and “↓” mean respectively “increased” and “decreased” after prebiotic supplementation.