Table 5.
Adjusted Parameter Estimates and Standard Errors
| Covariate/Level | Adjusted Beta Estimates (SE) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| KABC-II Nonverbal Index | KABC-II Mental Processing Index | BOT-2 Motor Proficiency Total Score | BRIEF Global Executive Composite | TOVA ADHD Index | TOVA D Prime Standard | ||
| Site | Malawi | 10.19 (2.09)*** | 10.46 (1.99)*** | .63 (1.30) | −6.07 (1.88)** | 2.19 (.47)*** | 9.04 (2.06)*** |
| Uganda | .28 (1.63) | 2.85 (1.54) | −5.23 (.98)*** | −4.29 (1.37)** | 1.35 (.36)*** | 7.51 (1.52)*** | |
| Zimbabwe | .31 (1.88) | 2.73 (1.88) | −5.59 (1.12)*** | −1.88 (1.63) | 1.13 (.45)* | 3.50 (1.89) | |
| Joburg | 7.56 (1.77)*** | 8.37 (1.58)*** | −3.19 (.85)*** | 2.50 (1.40) | 2.03 (.37)*** | 9.21 (1.67)*** | |
| Soweto | 4.53 (1.79)* | 3.52 (1.68)* | −1.91 (.97)* | 3.96 (1.55)* | 3.33 (.40)*** | 2.04 (1.74) | |
| Tygerberg | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | |
| Sex | Female | .03 (.81) | .87 (.78) | −.82 (.47) | .93 (.73) | .11 (.18) | −3.59 (.83)*** |
| Male | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | |
| Age at P1104s entry | Continuous | .61 (.34) | .52 (.33) | −.80 (.18)*** | .34 (.29) | −.19 (.08)* | −.52 (.36) |
| In school at time of KABC-II | No | .51 (.67) | 1.45 (.64)* | −1.85 (.48)*** | .62 (.74) | −.78 (.19)*** | −5.07 (.89)*** |
| Yes | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | |
| WHO height z-score | Continuous | 1.17 (.44)** | 1.36 (.41)*** | .73 (.23)** | −.72 (.36)* | .02 (.09) | .49 (.45) |
| Biological mom | No | 1.72 (1.47) | .45 (1.16) | 1.00 (.89) | −.05 (1.65) | −.40 (.36) | −.68 (1.60) |
| Yes | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | |
| Caregiver less than 5 years | No | 1.25 (1.37) | .90 (1.19) | 1.01 (.74) | −.18 (1.37) | .09 (.29) | −.42 (1.44) |
| Yes | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | |
| Residential zone | Peri-urban | .99 (1.35) | −.03 (1.33) | .14 (.78) | −.83 (1.16) | .22 (.31) | .22 (1.31) |
| Rural | −2.86 (1.26)* | −2.38 (1.25) | −1.99 (.77)* | −.79 (1.25) | .17 (.32) | −.48 (1.36) | |
| Urban | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | |
| Child, MICS4 disability score | 0, none | 4.61 (1.38)*** | 5.96 (1.30)*** | 3.20 (.87)*** | −6.67 (1.18)*** | .98 (.32)** | 3.31 (1.24)** |
| 1, some | 4.08 (1.49)** | 5.08 (1.40)*** | 2.18 (.90)* | −3.83 (1.34)** | .62 (.34) | 2.80 (1.36)* | |
| 2, high | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | REF | |
| Child, MICS4 developmental score | Continuous | 1.22 (.45)** | 1.22 (.41)** | .83 (.26)** | −1.82 (.38)*** | .24 (.10)* | 1.59 (.45)*** |
| SES index score | Continuous | .87 (.26)*** | 1.07 (.25)*** | −.02 (.14) | .11 (.21) | .04 (.06) | −.29 (.26) |
Data are for the associations between selected neuropsychological global test scores and covariate predictors, for all study cohorts combined. Main factor effects (not shown) for cohort, week, and cohort by week were also included in the linear regression models. *P value < .05; **P value < .01; ***P value < .001.
Abbreviations: ADHD, attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder; BOT-2, Bruininks-Oseretsky Test for motor proficiency, second edition; BRIEF, Behavior Rating Inventory for Executive Function; D-prime, overall TOVA signal detection test performance; KABC-II, Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, second edition; MICS4, United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, fourth edition; REF, referent; SE, standard error; SES, socio-economic status; TOVA, Tests of Variables of Attention; WHO, World Health Organization.