Table 6.
Genetics and epigenetics.
| Citation | Title | Sample | Findings | Clinical implications |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pietrzak et al. (112) | Association between negative age stereotypes and accelerated cellular aging: Evidence from two cohorts of older adults | Cohort 1 (n = 335) | Negative age stereotypes predicted shorter telomere length in veterans age 60 and older. | Since negative age stereotypes can be modified, such interventions may help prevent premature cellular aging as well as age-related functional decline. |
| Watkins et al. (113) | FKBP5 polymorphisms, childhood abuse, and PTSD symptoms: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study | Cohort 1 (n = 1, 585) and Cohort 2 (n = 577) | FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse may contribute to vulnerability for PTSD symptoms and may be most strongly associated with trauma-related hyperarousal symptoms that comprise this phenotype. | Findings may be useful in informing etiologic models of PTSD, by linking these candidate FKBP5 polymorphisms to specific PTSD symptom clusters, most notably hyperarousal symptoms |
| Watkins et al. (114) | Hostility and telomere shortening among U.S. military veterans: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study | Cohort 1 (n = 484) | Hostility, specifically, difficulties controlling anger, was associated with peripheral telomere shortening. | Results underscore the importance of assessing anger and aggression among veterans with high levels of hostility. Cognitive behavioral anger management treatments may be helpful in mitigating elevated hostility and associated acceleration of biological aging. |
| Andersen et al. (115) | Polygenic scores for major depressive disorder and risk of alcohol dependence | Cohort 1 (n = 2,036) | Higher major depression polygenic risk scores were associated with a significantly increased risk of alcohol dependence. | Findings suggest that common genetic factors contribute to MDD-AD comorbidity and that some individuals carry a genetic predisposition for both disorders. |
| Sippel et al. (116) | Oxytocin receptor gene polymorphisms, attachment, and PTSD: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study | Cohort 1 (n = 1,657) and Cohort 2 (n = 506) | Insecure attachment style and the interaction of OXTR rs53576 and attachment style were associated with probable lifetime PTSD | Findings may inform biosocial models of PTSD and suggest that individuals with one or more OXTR rs53576 alleles may benefit from interventions that target the oxytocin system and efforts to improve attitudes and feelings toward relationships to facilitate social coping. |
| Watkins et al. (117) | Association between functional polymorphism in neuropeptide Y gene promoter rs16147 and resilience to traumatic stress in US military veterans | Cohort 1 (n = 1,585) and Cohort 2 (n = 557) | The T allele of NPY gene promoter rs16147 was associated with resiliency to cumulative traumatic stress, especially resilience to intrusive symptoms. | NPY rs16147 T allele carriers may be less physiologically reactive to trauma cues, because they produce greater levels of NPY during stress. Further research is needed to evaluate whether interventions designed to enhance NPY levels1 may help promote stress resilience in trauma-affected populations. |
| Mota et al. (118) | Apolipoprotein E gene polymorphism, trauma burden, and post-traumatic stress symptoms in U.S. military veterans: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study | Cohort 1 (n = 1,386) and Cohort 2 (n = 509) | The interaction of APOE epsilon4 carrier status and cumulative trauma burden was associated with greater severity of PTSD symptoms. Greater social support was associated with lower severity of PTSD symptoms among APOE epsilon4 allele carriers with greater cumulative trauma burden. | Enhancement of social support networks among highly trauma-exposed veterans at elevated genetic risk for PTSD may help mitigate PTSD symptoms |
| Averill et al. (119) | Apolipoprotein E gene polymorphism, post-traumatic stress disorder, and cognitive function in older U.S. veterans: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study | Cohort 1 (n = 1,386) and Cohort 2 (n = 509) | APOE epsilon4 allele carriers with PTSD had substantially greater cognitive difficulties than epsilon4 carriers without PTSD. | Findings underscore the importance of assessing, monitoring, and treating PTSD in veterans and other trauma-affected populations who are at increased genetic risk for cognitive decline and dementia. |
| Pitts et al. (120) | BDNF Val66Met polymorphism and post-traumatic stress symptoms in U.S. military veterans: Protective effect of physical exercise | Cohort 1 (n = 1,386) and Cohort 2 (n = 509) | Met allele carriers reported greater severity of lifetime and current PTSD symptoms, specifically re-experiencing symptoms, with a significant interaction between Met carrier status and lifetime trauma load. Exercise moderated the interaction. | Findings suggest that interventions designed to bolster engagement in physical exercise may help mitigate PTSD symptoms in veterans who are Met allele carriers and highly exposed to trauma. |
| Tamman et al. (121) | Accelerated DNA methylation aging in U.S. military veterans: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study | Cohort 1 (n = 1,135) | Psychosocial factors of lifetime trauma burden, child sexual trauma, and negative beliefs about aging were independently associated with DNA aging. Diabetes, hypertension, and body mass index also emerged as correlates of DNA aging. | Findings underscore the importance of interventions targeting negative beliefs about aging and modifiable factors linked to DNA aging in veterans at increased risk of age-related morbidities and mortality. |
| Tamman et al. (122) | Attachment style moderates effects of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse on post-traumatic stress symptoms: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study | Cohort 1 (n = 1,585) and Cohort 2 (n = 577) | Secure attachment style fully counteracted the significant interaction of FKBP5 homozygous minor allele carriage and history of childhood abuse that was associated with greater severity of PTSD symptoms. | Results suggest that treatment designed to promote a secure attachment style may help counteract the deleterious interactive effect of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse and help mitigate risk for PTSD. |
| Pitts et al. (120) | Depression and cognitive dysfunction in older U.S. military veterans: Moderating effects of BDNF Val66Met polymorphism and physical exercise | Cohort 1 (n = 1,386) | The detrimental effect of depression on cognitive functioning was moderated by two factors known to alter BDNF function the brain: BDNF Val66Met genotype and physical exercise. | For veterans at risk of cognitive dysfunction, prevention and treatment efforts designed to promote physical exercise may help preserve cognitive functioning. |