Figure 4.

Effects of adaptogens on adaptive stress response intracellular signaling pathways (updated from authors’ drawings ¹⁷ ). Activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway positively regulates cell cycle, proliferation, neural long‐term potentiation (memory cognitive functions and longevity. AC, adenylate cyclase; AMPK, 5' AMP‐activated protein kinase; AP‐1, activator protein 1 transcription factor; CREB, cyclic AMP response element‐binding protein; DAG, diacylglycerol; Fos, Fos proto‐oncogene, AP‐1 transcription factor subunit; FOXOs, forkhead box proteins; IP3, inositol 1,4,5‐trisphosphate; JNK, c‐Jun N‐terminal kinases; MaM‐kinase, Ca²⁺/calmodulin‐dependent protein kinase II; MAPK–MEK (MAPK/ERK), mitogen‐activated protein kinases; NF‐κB, nuclear factor kappa‐light‐chain‐enhancer of activated B cells; NRF2, nuclear regulatory factor 2; PDE, 3',5'‐cyclic‐AMP phosphodiesterase; PI3K, phosphoinositide 3‐kinase; PIP3, phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)‐trisphosphate; PIP2, phosphatidylinositol (4,5)‐bisphosphate; PKA, cAMP‐dependent protein kinase; PKB‐Akt, serine/threonine‐specific protein kinase; PKC, protein kinase C; PLC, phospholipase C [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]