Table 2.
Frailty and Genes Associated With Educational Attainment: Multilevel Model Parameter Estimates
| Paulson–Lichtenberg Frailty Index | Frailty Index | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 3B | 4 | 5 | 6 | 6B | |||||||||
| Sex (male = 0) | ||||||||||||||||
| Female | 0.314 | *** | 0.314 | *** | 0.315 | *** | 0.958 | *** | 2.522 | *** | 2.539 | *** | 2.549 | *** | 0.849 | *** |
| Age (Z) | 0.596 | *** | 0.597 | *** | 0.595 | *** | 1.880 | *** | 4.909 | *** | 4.916 | *** | 4.910 | *** | 1.387 | *** |
| Cohort (no cohort) | ||||||||||||||||
| AHEAD | −7.922 | *** | −7.533 | *** | −7.489 | *** | −2.273 | *** | ||||||||
| CODA | 0.172 | ** | 0.167 | ** | 0.174 | ** | 0.583 | ** | −7.364 | *** | −7.081 | *** | −6.935 | *** | −1.903 | *** |
| HRS | 0.384 | *** | 0.374 | *** | 0.381 | *** | 1.349 | *** | −6.104 | *** | −5.930 | *** | −5.744 | *** | −1.501 | *** |
| War Babies | 0.686 | *** | 0.673 | *** | 0.678 | *** | 2.446 | *** | −3.662 | ** | −3.549 | ** | −3.371 | ** | −0.662 | ** |
| Early Baby Boomer | −2.751 | * | −2.692 | * | −2.525 | * | −0.713 | * | ||||||||
| Mid Baby Boomer | −1.158 | −0.995 | −0.813 | −0.179 | ||||||||||||
| Genetic principal components (z) | ||||||||||||||||
| PC1 | −0.034 | ** | −0.035 | ** | −0.034 | ** | −0.174 | *** | −0.545 | *** | −0.559 | *** | −0.561 | *** | −0.161 | *** |
| PC2 | −0.013 | −0.013 | −0.013 | −0.034 | −0.202 | −0.203 | −0.200 | −0.064 | ||||||||
| PC3 | 0.015 | 0.014 | 0.014 | 0.049 | 0.207 | 0.195 | 0.196 | 0.014 | ||||||||
| PC4 | −0.012 | −0.011 | −0.011 | −0.024 | −0.272 | * | −0.258 | * | −0.256 | * | −0.097 | * | ||||
| PC5 | 0.004 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.076 | 0.037 | 0.010 | 0.010 | 0.017 | ||||||||
| Education (Z) | −0.147 | *** | −0.132 | *** | −0.132 | *** | −0.412 | *** | −2.105 | *** | −1.827 | *** | −1.828 | *** | −0.579 | *** |
| PGS education (Z) | −0.044 | ** | −0.059 | ** | −0.205 | ** | −0.811 | *** | −0.762 | *** | −0.240 | *** | ||||
| Age × PGS | 0.039 | * | 0.178 | ** | 0.378 | *** | 0.269 | *** | ||||||||
| Intercept | 0.432 | *** | 0.442 | *** | 0.434 | *** | −5.661 | *** | 26.954 | *** | 26.783 | 26.588 | *** | −0.325 | ||
| Level 1 | 0.686 | 0.685 | 0.611 | 3.287 | 43.825 | 43.824 | 43.834 | 3.287 | ||||||||
| Level 2 | 0.613 | 0.612 | 0.686 | 4.699 | 99.634 | 99.060 | 98.727 | 8.412 | ||||||||
| ICC (ρ) | 0.472 | 0.472 | 0.529 | 0.588 | 0.695 | 0.693 | 0.693 | 0.719 | ||||||||
| N (observations) | 12,952 | 12,952 | 12,952 | 12,952 | 34,969 | 34,969 | 34,969 | 34,969 | ||||||||
| N (individuals) | 5,301 | 5,301 | 5,301 | 5,301 | 7,064 | 7,064 | 7,064 | 7,064 | ||||||||
Note: Data come from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS). Cell entries represent parameter estimates from a multilevel model in which observations are nested within individuals. PGS = polygenic score; Z = z-scored. Cohort names include: AHEAD = the study of Assets and Health Dynamics Among the Oldest Old (born before 1924), CODA = Children of Depression (born 1924–1930), HRS = original Health and Retirement cohort (born 1931–1941), War Babies (born 1942–1947), Early Baby Boomer (born 1948–1953), and Mid Baby Boomer (born 1954–1959). ICC = intraclass correlation coefficient; PC = principal component.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.