Figure 3.

Major sources of oxidative stress in Parkinson’s disease and the corresponding antioxidant defense mechanism in dopaminergic neurons. (A) In a pathological state, reactive oxygen species (ROS) act through a series of mechanisms resulting in cell damage and lipid peroxidation, which causes Parkinson’s disease. When anthocyanins are involved, they block ROS. (B) In a physiological state, there is an absence of ROS, which promotes cell growth without lipid peroxidation and a healthy cell is seen. The arrows represent an uninterrupted pathway. The T represents a blocked pathway. Abbreviations: UPS, ubiquitin proteasome system; α-syn, α-synuclein; AMPA, α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate; NMDA, N-methyl-d-aspartate; DR1 and DR2 (dopamine receptor 1 and 2); DA, dopamine, DJ-1, Protein deglycase [31]. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).