Table 2.
Recent studies on the contribution of NCCs inclusion in bone scaffold material design in terms of mechanical properties.
| Cellulose Sources | Polymer | Additives/Modification | Material Composition | Fabrication Method | Mechanical Properties (MPa) | Ref. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| σT | E | σC | E | ||||||
| Cotton | PLA | PLA grafted maleic anhydride (MPLA) | MPLA | Electrospinning | 1.6 ± 0.4 | 7.8 ± 3.1 | - | - | [77] |
| MPLA/NCC-1 | 4.8 ± 0.8 | 77.2 ± 7.8 | |||||||
| MPLA/NCC-2 | 4.9 ± 1.0 | 87.4 ± 8.0 | |||||||
| MPLA/NCC-5 | 10.8 ± 1.7 | 135.1 ± 10.4 | |||||||
| PLA/NCC-5 | 6.3 ± 1.2 | 125.6 ± 9.9 | |||||||
| Cotton | PLA | Add SnCl2·H2O; p-TSA | PLA | Freeze-drying/lyophilization | - | - | - | 19 | [46] |
| PLA/NCC-0.2 | 25 | ||||||||
| PLA/NCC-0.4 | 38 | ||||||||
| PLA/NCC-0.6 | 65 | ||||||||
| PLA/NCC-0.8 | 89 | ||||||||
| Pine wood | PLA | NCC grafted with peg (CNC-g-PEG) | PLA | Electrospinning | 2.8 ± 0.4 | - | - | - | [78] |
| PLA/NCC-1 | 2.8 ± 0.5 | ||||||||
| PLA/NCC-5 | 2.3 ± 0.5 | ||||||||
| PLA/NCC-g-PEG-1 | 3.5 ± 0.2 | ||||||||
| PLA/NCC-g-PEG-5 | 4.7 ± 0.3 | ||||||||
| PLA/NCC-g-PEG-10 | 2.8 ± 0.3 | ||||||||
| Sugarcane bagasse | PVA | Incorporated with n-HA | PVA | Freeze-drying | - | - | 0.4 | 0.32 | [27] |
| PVA/n-HA | 0.85 | 4.68 | |||||||
| PVA/n-HA/NCC-2 | 1.39 | 10.67 | |||||||
| PVA/n-HA/NCC-4 | 1.4 | 10.1 | |||||||
| PVA/n-HA/NCC-6 | 1.48 | 13.41 | |||||||
| PVA/n-HA/NCC-8 | 1.6 | 14.5 | |||||||
| PVA/n-HA/NCC-10 | 2.09 | 16.01 | |||||||
| Commercialized purified cellulose | PVA | Incorporated with ovalbumin (OVA) and n-HA and cross-linked with glutaraldehyde Composition: PVA/OVA/NCC/n-HA |
PVA/OVA/NCC/n-HA | Freeze-drying | - | - | - | - | [83] |
| 1/0.2/0.25/0 | 0.29 | 0.37 | |||||||
| 1/0.2/0/2/0.25 | 0.2 | 0.46 | |||||||
| 1/0.2/0.15/0.5 | 0.19 | 0.92 | |||||||
| 1/0.2/0.1/0.75 | 0.37 | 1.2 | |||||||
| 1/0.20/0.05/1 | 0.25 | 0.37 | |||||||
| 1/0.2/0/1.25 | 0.33 | 0.4 | |||||||
| Commercialized MCC | PVA | - | PVA | Fused deposition modelling (FDM) | 11.19 | 2.88 | - | - | [47] |
| PVA/NCC-2 | 11.69 | 4.25 | |||||||
| PVA/NCC-5 | 19.32 | 4.98 | |||||||
| PVA/NCC-10 | 15.46 | 5.71 | |||||||
| Commercialized MCC | PCL | - | PCL: MCC (1:0) | Fused deposition modelling (FDM) | - | - | - | 25 | [73] |
| PCL: MCC (49:1) | 32 | ||||||||
| PCL: MCC (19:1) | 29 | ||||||||
| PCL: MCC (9:1) | 7 | ||||||||
| Softwood sulfite pulp | PCL | Surface oxidation NCC | PCL | Micro-extrusion | 10.4 ± 0.9 | 194.3 ± 12.1 | - | - | [72] |
| PCL/NCC-1 | 13.4 ± 1.5 | 275.2 ± 14.4 | |||||||
| PCL/NCC-2 | 15.3 ± 1.0 | 299.9 ± 15.2 | |||||||
| PCL/NCC-3 | 16.3 ± 1.4 | 353.1 ± 20.9 | |||||||
| PCL/NCC-5 | 16.6 ± 0.3 | 373.8 ± 18.6 | |||||||
| PCL/NCC-10 | 18.2 ± 0.3 | 492.5 ± 44.1 | |||||||
| Wood pulp | - | NCC coated with HAP | NCC | Freeze-drying | - | - | - | 80.6 ± 1.4 KPa | [84] |
| NCC/HAP at pH 7.4 | 119.6 ± 2.7 KPa | ||||||||
| NCC/HAP at pH 8.5 | 227.6 ± 2.7 KPa | ||||||||
| NCC/HAP | 92.5 ± 2.3 KPa | ||||||||
| Cotton | Chitosan/alginate/HAP | Dicationic crosslinking using CaCl2 | SC | Freeze-drying | - | - | 0.35 | - | [53] |
| SC/HA | 0.38 | ||||||||
| SC/HA/NCC-0.5 | 0.48 | ||||||||
| SC/HA/NCC-1.0 | 0.54 | ||||||||
| SC/HA/NCC-2.0 | 0.51 | ||||||||
| Not stated | Silk fibroin (SF) | Incorporated with n-HA | SF | Freeze-drying | - | - | 92.1 ± 7.3 KPa | 175.2 ± 10.65 KPa | [85] |
| SF/NCC | 100.8 ± 13.5 KPa | 200 ± 12.3 KPa | |||||||
| SF/n-HA | 140.1 ± 11.4 KPa | 428.3 ± 14.4 KPa | |||||||
| SF/n-HA/NCC | 200.7 ± 15.3 KPa | 617.5 ± 25.2 KPa | |||||||
| Cotton | PLLA | Incorporated with HA pretreatment of particles using a coupling agent |
PLLA/HA/MCC | Freeze-drying | - | - | 0.5–2.3 | 8–47 | [81] |
σT = tensile strength; σC = compressive strength; E = elastic modulus.