Table 1.

Toxic effects of Se on the growth and physiological processes in plants.

Plant Species	Form and Dose of Se	Negative Impact on Growth and Physiology	Reference
Arabidopsis thaliana	SeO32–; 50 or 100 μM	Se-induced secondary nitrooxidative stress. Decreased root growth and biomass (FW and DW). Reduced cell viability. Modified cell wall structure by modifying the pectin and callose. Decreased stomatal density and impaired stomatal regulations sensitive varieties were affected more than the tolerant.	[26]
Raphanus sativus, Helianthus annuus, Medicago sativa Beta vulgaris var. cicla	SeO32–; 5 or 10 mg Se L–1	Growth inhibition.	[115]
Pisum sativum cv. Petit Provençal	SeO32–; 50 or 100 μM	Altered vegetative and reproductive development. Shoot and root length and FW decreased. Chl a, chl b, chl a/b, total chl, total carotenoids content decreased.	[30]
Cucumis sativus cv. Polan F1	SeO42–; 80 µM SeO32–; 20 µM	Decreased shoot root growth, biomass and leaf area. Impaired nutrient content. Reduced photosynthetic pigments accumulation and chl fluorescence. Increased lipid peroxidation.	[117]
Oryza sativa	SeO32–; 100 g Se ha−1	Increased Se content in root and shoot. Reduced photosynthesis and transpiration rate, and intercellular [CO2]. Impaired PSII quantum yield and diminished potential photosynthetic capacity. Reduced grain yield.	[118]
Lactuca sativa var. capitata cv. Justyna	SeO42–; 20 µM SeO32–; 15 µM	High accumulation of Se and S. Decreased biomass and leaf area. Reduced concentrations of photosynthetic pigments. Increased lipid peroxidation and H2O2 accumulation.	[119]
Triticum aestivum	SeO42–; 100 μM	Reduction of PSII and PSI activities.	[120]
A. thaliana	SeO42–; 20 or 40 μM	Root growth inhibition. Loss of root apex cell viability and malformed root architecture. Reduction of primary root growth, an increase of lateral root growth. Decreased meristem cell activities. Hormonal imbalance.	[121]
Spinacia oleracea cv. Missouri	SeO32–; 6 mg L−1	Increased Se accumulation. Decreased growth parameters, e.g., shoot and root length, and FW and DW. Increased Na and Ca content, but decreased K content.	[122]
Ulva sp.	SeO42–; 100 μM	Decreased level of chl and carotenoids.	[123]
Brassica juncea	SeO42–; 80 μM	Augmented Se and S concentration in different floral parts. Increased floral Se accumulation and impaired pollen germination.	[124]
Lactuca sativa	SeO32– and SeO42–; 20 µM	Increased shoot Se concentration. Decreased P, S, Mg, Mn, and Fe concentrations. A slight reduction in shoot DW and yield.	[125]
Hordeum vulgare	SeO42–; 2, 4, 8, or 16 ppm	Decreased plant height. Reduced chl concentrations.	[126]
Stanleya albescens	SeO42–, 20 μM	Reduced growth. Chlorosis and impaired photosynthesis. Accumulation of the free amino acid selenocystathionine, a carbon-Se-carbon compounds (presumably selenocystathionine) together with some selenocysteine and selenate.	[127]
Pteris vittata	SeO42–; 50 and 100 mg kg−1 in soil.	Suppressed uptake of Mg, K, P, Fe, Cu, and Zn.	[128]
Lactuca sativa var. capitata	SeO32–; 20 μM	Decreased productivity. Declined macronutrients accumulation in leaves.	[129]
Zea mays	SeO32–; 50 and 100 µmol L−1	Decreased DW accumulation. Root tolerance index severely decreased.	[130]
Z. mays	SeO42– or selenomethionine (C5H11NO2Se); 100 µM	High Se accumulation in root and shoot. Reduction in root and shoot FW. Altered anthocyanin level. Reduced chl level.	[131]
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii	SeO32– and SeO42–; 4.5 ± 0.2 µM	Photosynthesis disorders. Ultrastructural damage. Inhibition and interruption of the photosynthetic electron transport chain. Growth inhibition.	[111]