Table 2.

Mechanical properties of cementitious materials with CNFs.

Cementitious Materials	CNF Source	CNF Dosage	Mechanical Properties	Ref.
Concrete made with Portland cement CEM I 32.5R	Manufactured from apple cellulose	0.5 and 0.1% by weight of cement	Increase flexural strength and compressive strength, with 0.1% dosage exhibiting better strength	[27]
Calcium aluminate cement (CAC) paste and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) paste	A high-intensity mechanical refining process on sisal pulp	0.1, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.8% by weight of cement	In CAC paste, 0.1% dosage increases the modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity, but 0.2–0.8% dosage results in the opposite effect; in OPC paste, the improvement is not observed	[54]
Type I/II Portland cement paste	University of Maine Process Development	0.015, 0.030, 0.060, 0.090, and 0.150% by weight of cement	All dosages can improve compressive strength and especially flexural strength	[14]
Concrete and paste made with Type I/II Portland cement	University of Maine Process Development	0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 3.0% by volume of cement for paste; 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3% by volume of cement for concrete	For paste (w/c = 0.35), 0.05–0.2% dosage can increase compressive strength, and if w/c > 0.35, no clear improvement is observed; 0.5–3.0% dosage decreases compressive strength. For concrete, all dosages reduce compressive strength	[19]
Type GU Portland cement mortar	Sourced commercially and manufactured at the University of Alberta	0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5% of dry CNF by volume of mortar	0.1–0.5% decreases compressive strength to a modest extent; no significant difference is observed between the CNF variants	[66]
CEM I 32.5 N Portland cement paste	Manufactured from commercial bleached eucalyptus pulp (Eucalyptus globulus)	0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.5% by weight of cement	0.01–0.3% dosage enhances compressive strength; 0.5% dosage reduces compressive strength dramatically below that of plain paste	[61]
Ordinary Portland cement (PII 42.5 R) paste	Isolated from wood	0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.25, and 0.4% by weight of cement	3-day compressive and flexural strengths are not affected obviously; 28-day strengths are improved significantly by 0.05–0.15% dosage but are reduced if the dosage is beyond 0.15%	[60]
Type H oil well cement paste	Acid hydrolysis on W-50 grade bleached wood pulp	0.04, 0.12, 0.20, and 0.28% by weight of cement	0.04% dosage increases flexural strength significantly; beyond this dosage, the flexural strength is reduced	[63]
Type H oil well cement paste	Acid hydrolysis on W-50 grade bleached wood pulp	0.04% by weight of cement	No increase in compressive strength is observed; flexural strength is improved significantly	[64]