Table 2.
A summary of micro-particulated proteins incorporated as fat replacer in a range of applications in the past 5 years of research.
| Fat Replacers (FRs) | Application | Particle size (μm) | Production conditions | Key findings | References | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animal protein-based FRs | ||||||
| MWP/NWP | Model gels | 0.1–1 | - 0–8% w/w MWP - Measured at 20 °C |
↑ η ↓ μ | (Liu, Tian, Stieger, van der Linden, & van de Velde, 2016b) | |
| 0.2 | - 0.6-4.4% w/w MWP -HTST treatment - pH 6.6 (milk gel pH 4.8) -Measured at 4 °C |
↓ η ↓ G’ ↓yield stress ↓tortuosity ~ Cohesiveness ↓ H2O capacity ↓ firmness ↑ porosity |
Silva and O'Mahony (2018) | |||
| Skimmed milk | 1.16 | - 0.5–20.0% w/w MWP - Measured at 25 °C and 37 °C |
↑ η ↓ μ ↓ n | Olivares et al. (2019) | ||
| Stirred yoghurt | 0.005–100 | - 4.25% and 5.0% w/w (total protein) MWP, NWP, 10 variations - Pasteurised - Yoghurt pH 4.6 - Measured at 4 °C |
↑ η (high N/D) ~ η (low N/D) ↑ Gel strength ↑ G’ (high N/D) ↑ Elasticity ↑compaction ↑ H2O capacity (high N/D) ↑ Mechanical resistance (high N/D) |
Torres et al. (2018) | ||
| LF Edam cheese | – | - 0.3–0.9% w/w MWP, 3 variations. - Pasteurised - 4.5–5.3% salt (in moisture) - Measured at room temperature |
↑ moisture, ↑ proteolysis, ↓ firmness, ↑ homogeneity ↑ texture sensory: ↓ texture (highest Simplesse®100, Prolo®11), ↑ flavour, ↑ appearance ↑ OA ↑ bitterness (highest Simplesse 100, Prolo®11) |
El-Aidie et al. (2019) | ||
| LF cheese emulsion | 0.01–3 | - 5–20% (of dry matter, 16–28%) MWP - Heated at 80 °C and sheared - pH 4.7–4.9 - 3% w/w salt Measured at: 45 °C |
↑ followability ↓ η ↑↓ n ↓ shear stress ↑ porosity ↑ Whiteness; Sensory: ↑ flowability ↑ Glossiness ↓ Mouth-coating | Urgu et al. (2019) | ||
| LF Pickled cheese | – | - 1% w/w MWP - Pasteurised - pH 5.1–5.2 - 2.5–3.5% w/w salt - Measured at 4 °C |
↑ moisture ↓ hardness ↑ springiness ↓ cohesiveness ↓ gumminess ↓ chewiness, Sensory: ↑ whiteness ↑ appearance ↑ OA ↑ odour ↑ flavour | Akin and Kirmaci (2015) | ||
| Processed cheese | 0.01–3 | - 3–7% w/w MWP - Heated 90 °C 5 min - pH 5.6 - Measured at 5 °C |
↑ G′ ↑ G″ ↓ Max tan δ ↑ Gel-sol transition temp ~ firmness ~ hardness ~ colour | Schädle et al. (2020) | ||
| Kefir | – | - 2% w/w MWP, 2 variations - Heated 93 °C 15 min - pH 4.3–4.4. - Measured at 20 °C |
↑ η, Sensory: ↑OA | Temiz and Kezer (2015) | ||
| Multi grain cookies | – | - 7% w/w MWP - 0.2% w/w salt - Heated 165 °C 16 min - Measured at room temperature |
~ colour ~ flavour ↓ OA ↓ Tenderness | Aggarwal et al. (2016) | ||
| EWP | Salad dressings | 9.42 | - 9–11 g/mL MEWP sample vs commercial salad cream - Heating 13 min, sheared - pH 3.6 |
↑ η ↑ ↓ n ↑ G’ ↑ G’’ ↑ tan(δ) ↓ thixotropy; Sensory: cohesiveness ~ appearance ↓ flavour ~ OA |
(Liu et al., 2018a) | |
| Plant protein-based FRs | ||||||
| Micro-particulated plant proteins | MSP, MSP + EWP | Model liquid | 5.0–20.0 | - 6–15% wt/wt MSPI, MSPI + EWP - Heated 95 °C 30 min - pH 7 - Measured at 25 °C |
↓ μ (MSPI), ↓↓ μ (EWP + MSPI) ↑ η↓ off-flavour volatiles | Zhang et al., 2020b |