Figure 1.

Involvement of glucose toxicity in pancreatic β-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance. Under diabetic conditions, pancreatic β-cell function is gradually debilitated by the burden of glucose toxicity. In addition, insulin signaling in insulin target tissues (liver, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue) is weakened by the burden of glucose toxicity, leading to the development of insulin resistance. Such debilitation of the β-cell function and development of insulin resistance bring about a vicious cycle and finally lead to further aggravation of type 2 diabetes mellitus.