Figure 4.

Time-course of inflammation-related events in the penumbra areas after ischemia, hemorrhage, and trauma. HMGB1 translocation and extracellular release form the initial peak to insults, among the known responses, which was followed in succession by microglia activation (cytokine/chemokine production), astrogliosis, and infiltration of immune cells. HMGB1 release may be a very early event that is common to several brain injuries. Inhibition of HMGB1 by the earlier intervention can lead to the diminution of the following inflammatory responses. GFAP: glial fibrillary acidic protein; HMGB1: high mobility group box-1; Iba1: ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1.