Table 3.
Performance of biocoagulants/bioflocculants in treating drinking water and wastewater.
| No. | Name | Type | Function | Treated Water | Summary | Country | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Achatinoidea shell | Animal-based | Biocoagulant | Paint industry wastewater | Achatinoidea shell could reduce total dissolved solid (TDS) by up to 13% for 35 min of settling time with a dosage of 4 g/L at pH 7.9. Optimum performance of 99.22% was obtained at pH 4, 4 g/L dosage, and 45 °C. | Texas | [153] |
| 2 | Crab shell | Animal-based | Biocoagulant | Lake water | The crab shell could aid alum as a biocoagulant to enhance turbidity removal (97%) with 0.2 mg/L dosage after 45 min of settling time. Crab shell could be used as a natural aid coagulant for drinking water treatment with the lowest risks of organic release. | Algeria | [97] |
| 3 | Crab shells | Animal-based | Biocoagulant | Drinking water | Combining crab shell as biocoagulant and alum could reduce turbidity of low-, medium-, and high-turbidity water by up to 74.8%, 96.7%, and 98.2%, respectively. This removal was higher than that using only alum as coagulant. This biocoagulant could reduce the alum dose by up to 75%, and the sludge by-product is readily biodegradable. The optimum pH and biocoagulant dose for removing turbidity were 7 and 1.5 mg/L, respectively. | India | [112] |
| 4 | Periwinkle shell | Animal-based | Biocoagulant | Petroleum wastewater | Varying the dosage of periwinkle shell and pH had a significant effect on the coagulation–flocculation efficiency. The optimum conditions were pH 4 and a 100 mg/L periwinkle shell dosage. The removal of particles was up to 83.57%. | Texas | [96] |
| 5 | Shrimp shells | Animal-based | Biocoagulant | Wastewater containing oil | The chitosan from shrimp shell as a biocoagulant could reduce oil by up to 96.35% at pH 4 over 60 min of contact time. The removal of oil by using chitosan was increased after adding carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), with percentage efficiency of 99% at (90% chitosan and 10% CMC) with 30–60 min of contact time. | Egypt | [95] |
| 6 | Snail shell | Animal-based | Biocoagulant | Wastewater containing dye | The snail shell alone as biocoagulant could reduce malachite green (MG) dye by up to 60% with a dosage of 100 mg/L. The combination of snail shell and alum could enhance the removal of MG dye. The optimum pH for MG dye removal was found to range between 4 and 5. The optimum flocculation time was 30 min with an alum–snail shell dosage of 20–100 mg/L. The sludge produced from the alum–snail shell combination had better settling characteristics than the sludge obtained from the use of snail shell alone. | Nigeria | [154] |
| 7 | Alginate | Microorganism-based (algae) | Biocoagulant | Drinking water | Algal alginate has a high polysaccharide content that could perform as a biocoagulant. Alginate removed up to 98% of suspended solids from high-turbidity water. A low dosage of the coagulant (as low as 0.02 mg/L) still achieved high turbidity removal. | Turkey | [155] |
| 8 | Achromobacter xylosoxidans strain TERI L1 | Microorganism-based (bacteria) | Bioflocculant | Wastewater containing heavy metals | Achromobacter xylosoxidans strain TERI L1 could produce exopolysaccharide as a bioflocculant. The bioflocculant contained 75% total sugar, with 72.9% neutral sugar and 11.5% protein. Achromobacter xylosoxidans strain TERI L1 could flocculate Zn, Pb, Ni, Cd, and Cu by up to 90%. | India | [98] |
| 9 | Bacillus agaradhaerens C9 | Microorganism-based (bacteria) | Bioflocculant | Wastewater containing microalgae | A bioflocculant was extracted from Bacillus agaradhaerens C9 and contained 65.42% polysaccharides, 4.70% proteins, and 1.65% nucleic acids. The optimum conditions for producing bioflocculant from Bacillus agaradhaerens C9 were 10 g/L of glucose, 10 g/L of yeast extract, and an initial pH of 10.2. The flocculation rate for kaolin suspension was 95.29%, with optimum dosage, pH, and temperature of 1.5 mg/L, 6.53, and 29 °C, respectively. The bioflocculant had the potential to treat alkaline wastewater. | China | [156] |
| 10 | Bacillus licheniformis strain W7 | Microorganism-based (bacteria) | Bioflocculant | Synthetic wastewater containing kaolin and river water | A bioflocculant (MBF-W7) was produced using Bacillus licheniformis strain W7. The optimum conditions for flocculant production were a 5% (v/v) inoculum size with maltose and NH4NO3 as carbon and nitrogen sources. The pH and cultivation time were 6 and 72 h, respectively. The flocculation rate for kaolin clay suspension was 85.8%, observed at pH 3, and MBF-W7 of 0.2 mg/mL. MBF-W7 could remove turbidity and chemical oxygen demand (COD) by up to 86.9% and 75.3%, respectively, in Tyume River. | South Africa | [51] |
| 11 | Bacillus mucilaginosus | Microorganism-based (bacteria) | Bioflocculant | Starch wastewater | A bioflocculant (MBFA9) was produced from Bacillus mucilaginosus. The major component was a polysaccharide that contained uronic acid (19.1%), neutral sugar (47.4%), and amino sugar (2.7%). The flocculation rate for kaolin suspension was 99.6% with a 0.1 mL/L MBFA9 dosage. MBFA9 could reduce total suspended solid (TSS) and COD by up to 85.5% and 68.5%, respectively. | Singapore | [99] |
| 12 | Bacillus salmalaya 139SI-7 | Microorganism-based (bacteria) | Bioflocculant | Organic-rich wastewater | A bioflocculant (QZ-7) was synthesized using Bacillus salmalaya strain 139SI with flocculation activity of 83.3%. The optimum temperature, pH, and incubation time conditions for flocculant production were 35.5 °C, 7, and 72 h, respectively, with inoculum size of 5% (v/v), sucrose as carbon source, and yeast extract as nitrogen source. Bioflocculant QZ-7 could remove COD and BOD by 93% and 92.4%, respectively. | Malaysia | [100] |
| 13 | Bacillus velezensis | Microorganism-based (bacteria) | Bioflocculant | Lake water | This study investigated the effects of incubation time and temperature on the production of bioflocculants by using Bacillus velezensis grown in sago mill effluent (SME) and palm oil mill effluent (POME) as a fermentation feedstock. The highest bioflocculant yield (2.03 g/L) at a temperature of 40 °C was achieved in POME medium. The bioflocculant produced from a fermented SME medium (BioF-SME) showed the highest activity. Bioflocculants from POME and SME had performance comparable with alum’s in removing color and turbidity from lake water. | Malaysia | [102] |
| 14 | Chromobacterium violaceum and Citrobacter koseri | Microorganism-based (bacteria) | Bioflocculant | Tapioca wastewater | Chromobacterium violaceum and Citrobacter koseri were isolated from tapioca wastewater and had high flocculation activities of 68.92% and 71.38%, respectively. The optimum pH and temperature for Chromobacterium violaceum and Citrobacter koseri were 2–4 and 6–8 and 40 °C and 30 °C, respectively. | Indonesia | [157] |
| 15 | Paenibacillus polymyxa | Microorganism-based (bacteria) | Bioflocculant | Formaldehyde wastewater | A novel bioflocculant-producing bacterium (MBF-79) was isolated from formaldehyde wastewater sludge. The optimum inoculum size, pH, and formaldehyde concentration for bioflocculant production were 7.0%, 6, and 350 mg/L, respectively. The major components of MBF-79 were polysaccharide (71.2%) and protein (27.9%). The optimum MBF-79, pH, contact time for the removal of arsenate and arsenite by using MBF-79 were 120 mg/L, 7, and 60 min, respectively, with removal efficiencies of 98.9% and 84.6%, respectively. | China | [101] |
| 16 | Aspergillus niger | Microorganism-based (fungi) | Bioflocculant | Aquaculture wastewater | Aspergillus niger was applied to flocculate microalgae from aquaculture wastewater. More than 90% harvesting efficiency was obtained at pH 3.0 to 9.0 and a mixing rate of 100–150 rpm. | Malaysia | [152] |
| 17 | Aspergillus niger | Microorganism-based (fungi) | Bioflocculant | Potato starch wastewater | Two milliliters of the bioflocculant produced using A. niger was able to remove up to 91.15% of COD and 60.22% of turbidity within 20 min of treatment. Compared with the conventional coagulants (alum- and iron-based), this bioflocculant showed nearly identical performance with a lower material cost and a smaller yield of sludge. | Hong Kong | [151] |
| 18 | Penicillium sp. and Trichoderma sp. | Microorganism-based (fungi) | Biocoagulant | Domestic wastewater | Suspension of fungal spores was proven to reduce 84% (relative to alum efficiency) of turbidity from sewage at pH 7.8 with 60 min of treatment. | Iraq | [150] |
| 19 | Abelmoschus esculentus | Plant-based | Biocoagulant | Industrial textile wastewater | Abelmoschus esculentus as biocoagulant is more efficient for treating textile wastewater than chloride ferric. Abelmoschus esculentus can remove turbidity, COD, and color by up to 97.25%, 85.69%, and 93.57%, respectively, with optimum pH and concentration of biocoagulant of 6 and 3.2 mg/L, respectively. | Brazil | [57] |
| 20 | Dragon fruit foliage | Plant-based | Biocoagulant | Concentrated latex wastewater | Dragon fruit foliage as biocoagulant could reduce COD, SS, and turbidity from latex effluent by up to 94.7%, 88.9%, and 99.7%, respectively, at pH 10. The biocoagulant dosage range of 200–800 mg/L showed consistent removal of pollutants. The removal percentage for pollutants using ferric sulfate was higher than that using dragon fruit foliage. | Malaysia | [148] |
| 21 | Moringa oleifera | Plant-based | Biocoagulant | Synthetic turbid wastewater | Raw Moringa oleifera seed contains high amounts of oil, which can reduce the potential for coagulation activity. Oil extraction significantly increased the coagulation activity of Moringa oleifera seed. The utilization of this biocoagulant showed 82.43% oil and grease removal from water. | Brazil | [107] |
| 22 | Moringa oleifera | Plant-based | Biocoagulant | Hospital wastewater | Moringa oleifera extract contains dimeric protein. Utilization of this biocoagulant showed 65% removal of turbidity, 38% of COD, and up to 90% removal of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. | Benin | [108] |
| 23 | Moringa oleifera | Plant-based | Biocoagulant | Drinking water | Integrating seed powder of Moringa oleifera into solar water disinfection could reduce turbidity by up to 85% in 24 h and remove Escherichia coli in 6 h. | Ireland | [158] |
| 24 | Moringa oleifera | Plant-based | Biocoagulant | Freshwater containing microalgae | Moringa oleifera (MO) seed derivatives were used to harvest suspended microalgae, Chlorella sp. Flocculation efficiency of more than 95% was achieved with 20 min sedimentation. MO derivatives had better performance compared with aluminum sulfate at a low dosage of 10 mg L−1 and normal pH (6.9–7.5). | Malaysia | [145] |
| 25 | Ocimum basilicum L. | Plant-based | Biocoagulant | Leachate | Ocimum basilicum L. has potential as biocoagulant for leachate pretreatment. Combining O. basilicum and alum as coagulant could remove COD and color by up to 64.4% and 77.8%, respectively, with optimum conditions of 15 min of settling time, pH of 7, and alum/O. basilicum ratio of 1:1. Integrating biocoagulant of O. basilicum and ozonation could increase the percentage removal of COD and color by up to 92% and 87%, respectively. | Iran | [159] |
| 26 | Rice starch | Plant-based | Biocoagulant | Palm oil mill effluent (POME) | The floc shaped by rice starch was more stable than alum. The rice starch as biocoagulant could reduce TSS from POME by up to 84.1% with optimum conditions of dosage, pH, settling time, and slow stirring speed of 2 g/L, pH 3, 5 min, and 10 rpm, respectively. Combining rice starch (0.55 g/L) and alum (0.2 g/L) could increase the removal of TSS from POME by up to 88.4%. | Malaysia | [103] |