Table 1.

The effect of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics on various risk factors of cardiovascular diseases (in vivo model).

Probiotic/Prebiotic/Synbiotic Consumption	Dose (Per Day)	Days/Weeks	Subjects	Risk Factors of Cardiovascular Diseases	Ref.
Probiotic
L. plantarum 299v	20 billion cfu	6 weeks	Patients with stable coronary artery disease (people)	Reducing inflammatory biomarkers. No effect on trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) level	[21]
L. plantarum PH04	107 cfu	14 days	Male mice fed a high-cholesterol diet containing 10% w/v skim milk and 10% w/v cream	Lowering total cholesterol and triglycerides	[23]
L. reuteri V3401	5 × 109 cfu	12 weeks	Obese adults (people) with metabolic syndrome	Reducing inflammation	[30]
Multispecies probiotic Ecologic® Barrier	2.5 × 109 cfu; 1 × 1010 cfu	12 weeks	Obese postmenopausal Caucasian women	Decreasing systolic blood pressure and inflammation	[31]
Multispecies probiotic Ecologic® Barrier	2.5 × 109 cfu	12 weeks	Obese women	Decreasing homocysteine	[43]
L. acidophilus	109 cfu/mL	4 weeks	Hypercholesterolemic rats	Lowering total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL)	[24]
L. fermentum MTCC:5898-fermented milk	2 × 109 cfu	90 days		Reducing dyslipidemia, oxidative stress and inflammation	[29]
L. rhamnosus LRH11 and L. plantarum SGL07	3 × 108 cfu	16 weeks	People with CVDs risks	Reducing plasma trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) level	[75]
B. animalis subsp. lactis LKM512	No described	12 weeks	Healthy people	Reducing plasma trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) level	[77]
L. casei Shirota	6.5 × 109 cfu	12 weeks	Subjects with metabolic syndrome	No effect on trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) level	[72]
S. thermophilis, L. acidophilus LA-5 and B. bifidum BG-12	No described (3 mL/day)	4 weeks	Healthy animals	Lowering cholesterol and triglyceride	[20]
Prebiotic
Prebiotic fiber	10 or 20%	10 weeks	Obese hyperlipidemic rats	Lowering total serum cholesterol and triacylglycerol	[50]
Oligofructose	8 g/day	16 weeks	Overweight and obese children aged 7–12 years	Decreasing body weight	[53]
Oligofructose	21 g/day	12 weeks	Overweight and obese adults	Decreasing body weight	[51]
Synbiotic
Prebiotic (three different fiber types: 5 g fructooligosaccharides, 5 g galactooligosaccharides and 5 g inulin) and probiotic powder (Bioflora®) containing L. acidophilus strain T16, B. bifidum strain BIA-6, B. lactis strain BIA-6, and B. longum strain LAF-5	15 g of prebiotic and 5 g probiotic in sachet	12 weeks	Hemodialysis patients	Reducing the concentration of intracellular adhesion molecule type 1	[59]
Synbiotic containing L. acidophilus ATCC 4962, and three commercially available prebiotics (mannitol, fructooligosacharides and inulin)	L. acidophilus ATCC 4962 (1 g/pig per day), mannitol (1.56 g/pig per day), fructooligosacharides (1.25 g/pig per day) and inulin (2.2 g/pig per day)	8 weeks	Hypercholesterolemic pigs	Reducing total cholesterol, triacylglycerol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol	[57,58]