Table 2.
Factors associated with stunting in children aged 24–59 months.
| Variables | Model 1: Basic | Model 2: Basic and Underlying | Model 3: Basic, Underlying and Immediate | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR | 95% CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | p-Value | ||||
| Countries | ||||||||||||
| Maldives | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||||
| India | 3.73 | 2.63 | 5.30 | <0.001 | 2.65 | 1.74 | 4.02 | <0.001 | 2.69 | 1.77 | 4.08 | <0.001 |
| Bangladesh | 3.60 | 2.34 | 5.54 | <0.001 | 2.55 | 1.37 | 4.75 | 0.003 | 2.45 | 1.30 | 4.62 | 0.006 |
| Nepal | 4.32 | 2.97 | 6.31 | <0.001 | 2.61 | 1.71 | 3.96 | <0.001 | 2.62 | 1.71 | 4.02 | <0.001 |
| Pakistan | 3.79 | 2.54 | 5.64 | <0.001 | 3.37 | 2.17 | 5.23 | <0.001 | 3.28 | 2.09 | 5.15 | <0.001 |
| Type of place of residence | ||||||||||||
| Urban | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||||
| Rural | 1.86 | 1.62 | 2.14 | <0.001 | 1.18 | 1.04 | 1.33 | 0.008 | 1.17 | 1.04 | 1.31 | 0.011 |
| Working status | ||||||||||||
| Not working | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.87 | 0.69 | 1.08 | 0.199 | 0.86 | 0.69 | 1.08 | 0.196 | ||||
| Mother’s education | ||||||||||||
| Secondary or higher | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Primary | 1.19 | 0.96 | 1.47 | 0.120 | 1.18 | 0.95 | 1.46 | 0.141 | ||||
| No education | 1.47 | 1.28 | 1.70 | <0.001 | 1.46 | 1.27 | 1.69 | <0.001 | ||||
| Maternal age at child’s birth | ||||||||||||
| Less than 20 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| 20–29 | 0.98 | 0.81 | 1.18 | 0.812 | 0.98 | 0.81 | 1.18 | 0.810 | ||||
| 30–39 | 1.40 | 0.57 | 3.42 | 0.460 | 1.41 | 0.58 | 3.46 | 0.448 | ||||
| 40+ | 1.45 | 0.54 | 3.90 | 0.458 | 1.44 | 0.53 | 3.88 | 0.472 | ||||
| Mother’s age | ||||||||||||
| 15–24 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| 25–34 | 0.89 | 0.77 | 1.03 | 0.119 | 0.89 | 0.77 | 1.03 | 0.118 | ||||
| 35–49 | 0.57 | 0.25 | 1.31 | 0.189 | 0.57 | 0.25 | 1.31 | 0.187 | ||||
| Mother’s marital status | ||||||||||||
| Currently married | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Formerly married $ | 1.18 | 0.86 | 1.62 | 0.306 | 1.17 | 0.85 | 1.61 | 0.335 | ||||
| Maternal height | ||||||||||||
| ≥160 cm | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| 155–159 | 1.55 | 1.24 | 1.94 | <0.001 | 1.53 | 1.22 | 1.91 | <0.001 | ||||
| 150–154 | 2.40 | 1.99 | 2.90 | <0.001 | 2.38 | 1.97 | 2.87 | <0.001 | ||||
| 145–149 | 3.68 | 2.91 | 4.64 | <0.001 | 3.63 | 2.87 | 4.60 | <0.001 | ||||
| <145 cm | 4.81 | 3.75 | 6.18 | <0.001 | 4.76 | 3.71 | 6.11 | <0.001 | ||||
| Maternal BMI (kg/m2) | ||||||||||||
| 25+ | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| 19–25 | 1.08 | 0.86 | 1.37 | 0.498 | 1.08 | 0.85 | 1.37 | 0.529 | ||||
| <=18.5 | 1.43 | 1.17 | 1.74 | <0.001 | 1.42 | 1.16 | 1.73 | 0.001 | ||||
| Combined birth rank and birth interval | ||||||||||||
| 1st birth rank | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| 2nd/3rd birth rank, more than 2 years interval | 1.36 | 1.16 | 1.61 | <0.001 | 1.37 | 1.16 | 1.61 | <0.001 | ||||
| 2nd/3rd birth rank, less than or equal 2 | 1.95 | 1.61 | 2.35 | <0.001 | 1.95 | 1.61 | 2.36 | <0.001 | ||||
| 4th birth rank, more than 2 years interval | 1.70 | 1.37 | 2.12 | <0.001 | 1.70 | 1.37 | 2.11 | <0.001 | ||||
| 4th birth rank, less than or equal to 2 | 1.63 | 1.23 | 2.15 | 0.001 | 1.56 | 1.17 | 2.07 | 0.002 | ||||
| Paternal occupation | ||||||||||||
| Non-agriculture | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Agriculture | 1.13 | 0.95 | 1.34 | 0.174 | 1.14 | 0.96 | 1.35 | 0.146 | ||||
| Not working | 1.08 | 0.89 | 1.32 | 0.412 | 1.09 | 0.90 | 1.32 | 0.401 | ||||
| Power over earnings (Woman has money autonomy) | ||||||||||||
| By Husband alone | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Woman alone or joint decision | 1.27 | 1.01 | 1.59 | 0.043 | 1.28 | 1.02 | 1.60 | 0.035 | ||||
| Power over Household decision making | ||||||||||||
| By Husband alone | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Woman alone or joint decision | 0.85 | 0.63 | 1.14 | 0.287 | 0.83 | 0.62 | 1.12 | 0.221 | ||||
| Woman has health care autonomy | ||||||||||||
| By Husband alone | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Woman alone or joint decision | 0.91 | 0.70 | 1.20 | 0.512 | 0.93 | 0.71 | 1.21 | 0.572 | ||||
| Pooled Household wealth index | ||||||||||||
| Richest | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Richer | 1.03 | 0.79 | 1.35 | 0.805 | 1.03 | 0.79 | 1.35 | 0.813 | ||||
| Middle | 1.37 | 1.13 | 1.66 | 0.002 | 1.36 | 1.12 | 1.66 | 0.002 | ||||
| Poorer | 1.43 | 1.18 | 1.75 | <0.001 | 1.43 | 1.17 | 1.74 | <0.001 | ||||
| Poorest | 1.65 | 1.31 | 2.06 | <0.001 | 1.64 | 1.31 | 2.05 | <0.001 | ||||
| Source of drinking water | ||||||||||||
| Not improved | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Improved | 1.02 | 0.90 | 1.14 | 0.790 | 1.02 | 0.90 | 1.15 | 0.744 | ||||
| Type of toilet facility | ||||||||||||
| Improved | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Unimproved | 1.00 | 0.86 | 1.16 | 0.950 | 1.00 | 0.86 | 1.15 | 0.963 | ||||
| Combined mode and place of delivery | ||||||||||||
| Caesarean and Health Facility | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Non and Health Facility | 1.27 | 0.97 | 1.67 | 0.085 | 1.27 | 0.97 | 1.67 | 0.086 | ||||
| Non C and Home | 1.21 | 0.91 | 1.62 | 0.193 | 1.23 | 0.92 | 1.64 | 0.171 | ||||
| Delivery Assistance | ||||||||||||
| Health professional | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Traditional birth attendant | 1.03 | 0.90 | 1.17 | 0.674 | 1.02 | 0.90 | 1.16 | 0.735 | ||||
| Other untrained & | 1.12 | 0.96 | 1.31 | 0.159 | 1.10 | 0.94 | 1.28 | 0.242 | ||||
| Antenatal clinic visits | ||||||||||||
| ≥8 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| 4 to 7 | 1.09 | 0.86 | 1.39 | 0.482 | 1.09 | 0.86 | 1.39 | 0.479 | ||||
| 1 to 3 | 1.41 | 1.05 | 1.88 | 0.021 | 1.41 | 1.05 | 1.88 | 0.022 | ||||
| None | 1.17 | 0.95 | 1.45 | 0.141 | 1.20 | 0.97 | 1.49 | 0.096 | ||||
| Media | ||||||||||||
| Reads newspaper | ||||||||||||
| Not all | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Yes ++ | 1.18 | 0.98 | 1.43 | 0.085 | 1.18 | 0.98 | 1.43 | 0.087 | ||||
| Listening radio | ||||||||||||
| Not all | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Yes ++ | 1.23 | 0.96 | 1.57 | 0.107 | 1.22 | 0.95 | 1.58 | 0.120 | ||||
| Watches television | ||||||||||||
| Not all | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Yes ++ | 0.86 | 0.76 | 0.97 | 0.012 | 0.86 | 0.76 | 0.97 | 0.015 | ||||
| Dietary diversity score | ||||||||||||
| <4 food Inadequate | 1.00 | |||||||||||
| 4+ foods Adequate | 0.88 | 0.71 | 1.11 | 0.284 | ||||||||
| Vitamin A supplement | ||||||||||||
| Yes | 1.00 | |||||||||||
| No | 1.01 | 0.92 | 1.10 | 0.837 | ||||||||
| Sex of child | ||||||||||||
| Female | 1.00 | |||||||||||
| Male | 0.96 | 0.87 | 1.07 | 0.481 | ||||||||
| Vaccination | ||||||||||||
| No | 1.00 | |||||||||||
| Yes ** | 0.99 | 0.86 | 1.13 | 0.835 | ||||||||
| Had diarrhoea recently | ||||||||||||
| No | 1.00 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 1.21 | 1.03 | 1.42 | 0.018 | ||||||||
| Had fever in last two weeks | ||||||||||||
| No | 1.00 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 1.16 | 1.02 | 1.31 | 0.022 | ||||||||
$ = formerly in union/living with a man, never in union [includes married gauna]; &—assistance from friends, relatives, neighbours, no one and others; ++ = less than once a week and at least once a week; ** Yes if the child received a Bacillus Calmette–Guerin vaccination against tuberculosis; 3 doses of diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus vaccine; ≥3 doses of polio vaccine; and 1 dose of measles vaccine and No otherwise.