Fig. 5.

Scaled SVGMD module demonstrates excellent performance in desalination of mineral oil/seawater mixtures under real-world conditions. a Scaled SVGMD system with different components of the system marked with arrows. b Schematic of the SVGMD system. For experiments with solar concentration, a 30 × 30 cm² Fresnel lens is used to concentrate sunlight on the P–G–Ni_foam surface by a factor of 12. c The daily permeate water of outdoor solar experiments with 12 × solar magnification. The inset is the concentrations of five primary ions before (mineral oil/seawater mixtures) and after (permeate water) desalination. d Salt rejection performance and TOC level of permeate water with seawater mixtures/mineral oil (1 g L⁻¹ mineral oil with natural seawater). The inset shows a typical mineral oil/seawater mixture