Table 1.
Overview of piezoelectric materials and their individual characteristics for piezo-electro-chemical processes
| Materials | Piezoelectric material characteristics | Piezo-electro-chemical processes | Refs. | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Synthesis method | Polarization | Shape | Size | Piezoelectric constant | Piezoelectrically induced potential | Application(s) | Conditions | Performance | ||
| PMN-PT | Commercially obtained | Poled along the <001> direction | Slab | 24 × 4 × 0.25 mm3 | 2200–2700 pC/N | 20 V | Hydrogen production | Vibrator (10 and 20 Hz) and linear actuator | ~ 0.01–0.08 ppb/oscillation | [65] |
| PZT | Sol–gel process | Polarized under 14 V by AFM | Grains | 70–100 nm | – | – | Selective deposition | Hg lamp (400 W) | Metal ions can be reduced to metal by photoexcited e− at the surface of c+ domains | [179] |
| PZT | Sol–gel process | Polarized under 12 V by AFM | Films | Thickness: 70 nm; area: 2 cm2 | – | – | Selective deposition | Hg lamp and Fe-doped Hg lamp (400 W) | Deposition of silver on c+ domains | [77] |
| PZT | Commercially obtained | Two PZT ceramics polarized opposite | Wafer | 30 × 15 × 0.3 mm3 | ~500 pC/N | ~12 V | Hydrogen production | A cyclic force of ~ 0.07 N; a resonance frequency of ~ 46.2 Hz | ~10−8 mol/min | [66] |
| PZT | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Fibers | Diameter: ~ 500 nm; length: several micrometers | – | – | Dye degradation | Ultrasonic mechanical vibration (5.05 × 10 kPa; 40 kHz) | Degradation ratio of 80% for acid orange 7 solutions (30 μmol/L) | [67] |
| TiO2/BFO | Ball-milling method | Polarized by AFM | Substrates | – | – | – | Selective deposition | UV light | Reduction of aqueous silver cations from solution | [38] |
| BFO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Square micro-sheets | ~ 1 μm | ~ 70 pm/V | – | Dye degradation | Under an ultrasonic source (5.05 × 10 kPa; ~ 40 kHz) | Degradation ratio of ~ 95% for rhodamine B solutions (~ 10 mg/L) | [70] |
| BFO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Square micro-sheets | ~ 380 nm | ~ 100 pm/V | ~ 0.88 V | Hydrogen production | Under a mechanical vibration excitation for 1 h (100 W 1.01 × 105 kPa; ~ 45 kHz) | Hydrogen production rate of ~ 124.1 μmol/g | [71] |
| Dye degradation | Degradation ratio of ~ 94.1% for rhodamine B solutions within 50 min | |||||||||
| BFO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanosheets | Area: 2–3 μm; thickness: ~ 150 nm | ~ 100 pm/V | – | Dye degradation | UV–visible light and ultrasonic mechanical vibrations | Degradation ratio of ~ 71% for rhodamine B solutions within 1 h | [78] |
| Nanowires | Length: 30 μm; diameter: 200–700 nm | Degradation ratio of ~ 97% for rhodamine B solutions within 1 h | ||||||||
| BFO-PDMS | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanoflowers | ~ 30 μm | 70 pm/V | – | Dye degradation | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations (40 kHz, 400 W) | Degradation ratio of ~ 98% for rhodamine B solutions (40 mL, 5 mg/L) | [37] |
| BTO | Molten salt flux method | No poling | Particles | 1–5 μm | – | – | Selective deposition | Hg lamp (300 W) | Apparent dependence on the surface orientation ((100) > (111) > (110)) | [74] |
| BTO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Microdendrites | ~ 10-μm-long rods with a-few-micrometer-long secondary branches | – | – | Hydrogen production | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations | 1.25 × 10−2 ppm/s | [32] |
| BTO–TiO2 | High-temperature calcination | Polarized by AFM | Substrates | ~ 50 μm | – | – | Selective deposition | UV light | Patterning of products on the film surface, reproducing patterns of products on the bare substrate | [74] |
| BTO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Microdendrites | ~ 10-μm-long rods with a-few-micrometer-long secondary branches | – | – | Dye degradation | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations (40 kHz) | Degradation ratio of ~ 80% for acid orange 7 solutions (5.7 × 10−5 M) within 90 min | [32] |
| Ag2O-BTO | Chemical precipitation | No poling | Nanocubes | ~ 50 nm | – | – | Dye degradation | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations (40 kHz, 50 W) and UV light irradiation | Total degradation for rhodamine B solutions within 1.5 h | [36] |
| Si/CNT/BTO | High-energy ball-milling process | Poling BTO to create a piezoelectric potential | Nanocomposite particles | < 100 nm | 350 pC/N | – | Li-ion batteries | Deformation of Si nanoparticles during lithiation (1.7 GPa) | Coulombic efficiency converged to 98% by the fifth cycle and increased to 99.8% at around the hundredth cycle | [49] |
| BTO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Microcrystals with a coral-type surface texture | Coral branches with a diameter of 200−400 nm | – | – | Dye degradation and dechlorination | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations (40 kHz) and ferrous ions added | Degradation ratio of 93.4% for acid orange 7 solutions (5.7 × 10−2 mmol/L, 5 mL, pH 3.0) | [76] |
| BTO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Particles | 32.5 nm | – | – | Dechlorination | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations (40 kHz, 110 W) | Dechlorination ratio of 35.2% and degradation ratio of 71.1% for 4-chlorophenol solutions (25 mg/L) | [75] |
| BTO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanowires | Diameter: 100 nm; length: a few micrometers | – | – | Dye degradation | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations (40 kHz, 80 W) | Effective enhancement degradation in BTO nanowires for methyl orange solutions within 160 min (100 mL, 5 mg/L) | [101] |
| Nanoparticles | 200 nm | |||||||||
| BTO–PDMS | Electrospinning | No poling | Particles | < 1 μm | 180 pm/V | – | Dye degradation | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations (40 kHz, 400 W) | Degradation ratio of ~ 94% for rhodamine B solutions (40 mL, 5 mg/L) | [37] |
| ZTO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanowires | Length: 500 nm | – | – | Dye degradation | UV irradiation (15 W) and pressured by an array of multiple stress probes | ~ 27% degradation improvement in piezo-photocatalysis for methylene blue solutions (4 ppm) | [68] |
| ZTO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanowire arrays | Dozens of micron | – | – | Dye degradation | UV irradiation (320–340 nm, 30 W), ultrasonic mechanical vibrations, and a piece of glass | Piezophotodegradation rate of ~ 1.5 × 10−2 min−1 for methylene blue solutions (10 mL, 4 ppm) | [89] |
| ZnO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Fibers | Diameter: ~ 0.4 μm; length: 4–10 μm | – | – | Hydrogen production | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations | 3.4 × 10−3 ppm/s | [32] |
| Ag/Ag2S–ZnO/ZnS | Modified polyol process | No poling | Nanorods | Length: > 100 nm | – | 1 V | Hydrogen production | Xenon arc lamp (300 W, 100 mW/cm2) and ultrasonic mechanical vibrations | 1250 μmol h−1 g−1 | [69] |
| Dye degradation | Highest rate constant of 0.0224 min−1 for methyl orange solutions | |||||||||
| ZnO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanowire arrays | Length: 1600 nm; diameter: 50 nm | – | ~ 0.4 V | Piezoelectric nanogenerator | External 500 Pa pressure | Close circuit current peak reached ~ 2 nA | [47] |
| Supercapacitor | External 3 mV power supply for 0.1 s | Close circuit current peak reached ~ 2 nA | ||||||||
| CuS/ZnO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanowires | Diameter: ~ 100 nm; length: ~ 4 μm | – | – | Dye degradation | Xenon lamp (500 W, 200−1100 nm) and ultrasonic probe (200 W) | Complete degradation for methylene blue solutions (50 mL, 5 mg/L) within 20 min | [80] |
| ZnO/C | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanowires | Diameter: 500 nm; length: 6 μm | – | 20 mV | Dye degradation | UV irradiation (50 W, 313 nm) and periodically applied force (1 Hz, 1 cm) | Degradation ratio of ~ 96% for methylene blue solutions (100 mL, 5 mg/L) within 120 min | [88] |
| Ag2O/ZnO | Thermal evaporation | No poling | Tetrapod structure | Diameter: ~ 200 nm; leg length: ~ 4 μm | – | – | Dye degradation | UV irradiation (50 W) and ultrasonic probe (200 W) | Degradation ratio of 99% for methylene blue solutions (100 mL, 5 mg/L) within 2 min | [79] |
| ZnO@TiO2 | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanofibers | Diameter: ~ 20 nm; length: ~ 200 nm | – | – | Dye degradation | High pressure mercury lamp (100 W, 365 nm) and ultrasonic mechanical vibrations (~ 40 kHz, ~ 5.05 × 104 kPa) | Degradation ratio of 90% for methyl orange solutions (100 mL, 5 mg/L) within 120 min | [109] |
| ZnO | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanorods | Diameter: ~ 25 nm; length: ~ 1.25 μm | – | – | Dye degradation | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations | Degradation ratio of ~ 80% for acid orange 7 solutions (50 mL, 5 μM) within 50 min | [184] |
| ZnO–PDMS | Gas-phase method | No poling | Tetrapod structure | Leg length: ~ 10 μm | 22.5 pm/V | – | Dye degradation | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations (40 kHz, 400 W) | Degradation ratio of ~ 94% for rhodamine B solutions (40 mL, 5 mg/L) within 120 min | [37] |
| MoSe2 | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanoflowers | 2–3 μm | – | – | Dye degradation | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations (40 kHz, 250 W) | Degradation ratio of ~ 90% for rhodamine B solutions (50 mL, 10 ppm) within 30 s | [81] |
| MoS2 | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanoflowers | 0.5–1 μm | – | – | Dye degradation | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations (40 kHz, 250 W) | Degradation ratio of 93% for rhodamine B solutions within 60 s | [72] |
| MoS2/PDMS | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanoflowers | 0.2–0.4 μm | – | 23 V | Dye degradation | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations (40 kHz, 250 W) | Degradation ratio of 99% for rhodamine B solutions within 90 min | [73] |
| Triboelectric nanogenerator | Output voltage of 23 V for water flow rate of 20 mL/s | |||||||||
| PDMS/WS2 | Hydrothermal reaction | No poling | Nanoflowers | < 1 μm | – | – | Dye degradation and antibacterial performance | Ultrasonic mechanical vibrations (40 kHz, 300 W) | Degradation ratio of 90% for rhodamine B solutions (40 mL, 10 mg/L) within 90 min | [82] |
| PVDF–HFP | Crystalline thermoplastic reaction | 4 V, 15 h | Solid electrolyte sheet | Thickness: 4 mm | 23 pC/N | – | Self-healing | A constant voltage of 4 V | A weight gain of 6–7% at anode | [186] |
| PVDF | Commercial obtained | Polarized | Film | Thickness: ~ 110 μm | – | ~7 V | Self-charging power cell | Compressive force (2.3 Hz, 45 N) | Voltage increased from 327 to 395 mV within 240 s | [44] |
| CuO/PVDF | Spin-coating method | Polarized for 30 min under 20 kV/mm at 80 °C | Film | Thickness: ~ 80 μm | – | ~2.8 V | Self-charging power cell | Compressive force (1 Hz, 30 N) | Voltage increased from 50 to 169 mV within 240 s | [180] |
| PVDF–PZT | Spin-coating method | Polarized for 30 min under 20 kV/mm at 80 °C | Film | Thickness: ~ 90 μm | 500–600 pC/N | ~1.3 V | Self-charging power cell | Compressive force (1.5 Hz, 10 N) | Voltage increased from 210 to 297.6 mV within 240 s | [181] |
| PVDF | Spin-coating method | Polarized for 30 min under 20 kV/mm at 80 °C | Mesoporous film | Pore diameter: 700–900 nm; thickness: 2.7 μm | – | 2.84 V | Self-charging power cell | Compressive force (1.8 Hz, 34 N) | Voltage increased from 160 to 299 mV within 250 s | [83] |
| PVDF | Spin-coating method | Polarized for 2 h under 20 V/μm | Highly porous film | Pore diameter: 1–3 μm; thickness: 30–40 μm | – | 3.84 V | Self-charging power cell | Compressive energy (1 Hz, 282 mJ) | Voltage increased from 1.2 to 1.4 V within 200 s | [84] |
| PVDF–ZnO | Solution-casting method | No poling | ZnO nanowires in a PVDF film | Length of ZnO: 3–5 μm | – | 5 V | Self-charging supercapacitor power cell | Compressive force (18.8 N) | Voltage increased from 35 to 145 mV within 300 s | [45] |
| PVDF–PTFE | Commercial obtained | Polarized | Film | Size: 3 × 2.5 cm2; thickness: 110 μm | – | 2.3 V | Hybrid nanogenerator | Vibration frequency of 3 Hz and temperature variation period of 200 s | Carbon steel electrodes can be protected from corrosion for 15 h | [90] |
| Collagen | Obtained from rabbits’ bones | No poling | – | – | – | – | Self-healing | Compression; immersed in SBF for 28 days | Appreciable deposition of hydroxyapatite | [85] |