Table 1.
Evidence of association between ambient air pollution and neurological disease.
| Diseases | Subjects | Study design | Exposure level (component) | Result | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dementia | 9,817,806 | Meta-analysis | PM2.5 | Long-term exposure PM2.5 accreted time to first hospitalization for dementia. | (11) |
| 130,978 | Retrospective cohort study | PM2.5 and PM2.5 from traffic | Positive association between residential levels of air pollution across London and being diagnosed with dementia. | (12) | |
| 95,690 | Prospective cohort study | PM2.5, O3 | Long term exposure to PM2.5 and O3 above the current US EPA standards are associated with increased risk of AD. | (8) | |
| 2,066,639 | Prospective cohort study | PM2.5, NO2 | 15, 813 cases of dementia (or 6.1% of total cases) were attributable to elevated air pollution. | (16) | |
| 19,409 | Prospective cohort study | PM2.5, PM10 | Rate of cognitive decline was significantly higher in women with highest level of exposure to PM2.5 compared to lowest level. | (10) | |
| 20,150 | Prospective cohort study | PM2.5 | Exposure to PM2.5 was not associated with incident cognitive impairment, even when analysis was run on participants with more than 12 months of exposure data. | (74) | |
| 2,867 | Prospective cohort study | PM2.5, PM10 (w/or w/o Traffic) | Exposure to PM2.5 and PM10 was associated with memory decline in participants. | (75) | |
| 130,978 | Retrospective cohort study | PM2.5, NO2, O3 | Increased risk of dementia with increased exposure to PM2.5 and NO2. Decreased risk with greater exposure to O3. | (12) | |
| 2,066,639 | Prospective cohort study | PM2.5, NO2, O3 | PM2.5 and NO2 is associated increased risk of dementia. But, increased exposure to O3 was not associated with incident dementia. | (16) | |
| 5,116 | Case-Control design | PM2.5, O3 | Presence of at least one APOE4 allele was associated with faster decline for air pollution. O3 exposure effects were not significant in cognitively impaired but associated with faster decline for all exposure. | (76) | |
| 243,611 | Prospective cohort study | PM2.5, NO2 | Living closer to a roadway was associated with increased risk of dementia. | (16) | |
| 29,547 | Case-Control design | NO2, CO | Highest levels of NO2 and CO exposure was significantly associated with increased risk of dementia. | (77) | |
| Stroke | 65,893 (Postmenopausal women) | Prospective cohort study | PM2.5 | Stroke incidence increased by 35% and stroke deaths increased by 83% after exposure to PM2.5. | (22, 78) |
| 124,614 | Prospective cohort | PM2.5 | Stroke incidence increased by 19% after exposure to PM2.5. | (26) | |
| 836,557 | Prospective cohort study (Patient) | SO2 | Stroke incidence increased by 4% after exposure to SO2. | (29) | |
| 24,066 | Prospective cohort study | PM2.5 | Stroke hospitalization increased by 3.49% after the exposure to PM2.5. | (27) | |
| 9,941 | Retrospective cohort | PM10, NO2 | Stroke mortality increased by 49% for PM10 and 144% for NO2. | (79) | |
| 99,446 | Meta-analysis | PM2.5 | Overall stroke incidence increased by 19%. Increased risk was observed even at concentrations that met the European Union standard of 25μg/m3. | (80) | |
| 379 | Retrospective cross-sectional study | PM10, PM2.5, NO2, O3, SO2 | Air pollution levels correlate with ischemic stroke admission. | (81) | |
| 2,640,000 | Case-Control design | PM2.5 | Air temperature influences air pollution and hospital admission for stroke. | (82) | |
| 10,663 | Case-Control design | NO2 | NO2 levels during the cold season is associated with increase stroke admissions. | (83) | |
| 3,362 | Prospective cohort study (Time-series design) | NO, SO2, CO, organic carbon | Each component associated with hemorrhagic stroke. | (84) | |
| 26,210 | Case-Control design | O3 | O3 exposure associated with increased stroke hospitalization risk. | (85) | |
| Depression | 118,602 DD (Depressive Disorder) | Case-Control design | PM2.5, NO2, SO2, O3 | The ozone was more strongly associated with depressive symptoms in warm season. But there was no association with PM2.5, SO2, or NO2. | (35) |
| 19,646 DD | Case-Control design | PM2.5, PM10 | The PM2.5 and PM10 were associated with incidence of depression, and aging is a susceptibility factor. | (86) | |
| 27,047 DD | Time-series study | PM2.5, NO2, SO2, O3 | The PM2.5, NO2, SO2, and CO had significant association with depression in warm season. | (38) | |
| 4,985 DD | Case-Control design | PM10, NO2, SO2, O3 | The PM10, NO2, SO2, and CO had significant association with depression. | (36) | |
| 680 DD | Case-Control design | O3 | The O3 was strongly associated with depression in women. | (37) | |
| 973 DD | Prospective cohort study | PM2.5 | The PM2.5 is associated with incidence of depression and chronic disease is a susceptibility factor. | (87) | |
| Schizophrenia | 943, 027 | Meta-analysis | Urban vs. suburban | Natural environments during childhood may be important for schizophrenia prevention. | (57) |
| 10,947 MDs (Mental Disorder) |
Case-Control design (Time-series) |
PM2.5, PM10, PMc | PM exposure might be an important trigger of hospitalizations for MDs. | (61) | |
| 1,193 SP (Schizophrenia patients) | Cross-sectional Study | PM2.5 | Ambient PM2.5 concentration was associated with exacerbation of schizophrenia. | (64) | |
| 34,865 SP | Case-Control design (Time-series) |
PM2.5, SO2, NO2 | Ambient air pollution (PM10, SO2, NO2) can be associated with increased risk of daily outpatient visits for schizophrenia. | (59) | |
| 11,373 MDs | Case-Control design (Time-series) |
NO2 | Short-term exposure to NO2 may be associated with increased schizophrenia hospital admissions. | (62) | |
| 2,232 (Children) |
Cross-sectional study | NOx, PM2.5, PM10 | Air pollution exposure-particularly NO2 and NOx-was associated with increased odds of adolescent psychotic experiences, which partly explained the association between urban residency and adolescent psychotic experiences. | (60) | |
| 3,469 MDs | Case-Control design (Time-series) |
PM10, SO2, NO2 | It significantly increased the risk of schizophrenia episode in subjects who were male, aged 20–59, farmers, and workers. | (63) |
MD, Mental Disorder Patient; DD, Depressive Disorder Patient; SP, Schizophrenia Patient.