Table 1.

List of health benefits of probiotics in the treatment of various diseases

Effect	Probiotic strains	Mechanisms of actions
Immunomodulation	Lactobacillus	Induce TNF-α secretion by lipoteichoic acid (LTA) [5]
	Bifidobacterium longum	Modulate TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10 and IL-12 and TH17 responses [6] due to its surface exopolysaccharide
	B. animalislactis Bb-12	Activated intestinal NF-κB [7]
		IgA secretion [8]
Improving the immune system and cytokine production in COVID-19 patients	Lactobacillus	As adjuvant nutritional therapies in COVID-19 patients [9–11]
Protective effects against physiological stress	L. acidophilus (strain LAP5 and LF33)	Bind to the intestinal epithelial cells and blocked the colonization of Salmonella [12]
	L. acidophilus A4	Antagonize adhesion of the E. coli adhesion to epithelial cells by up-regulation of mucin-2, IL-8, IL-1β and TNF-α [13]
	Bifidobacterium spp.	Produce acetate and inhibit Shiga toxin–producing E. coli O157:H7 [14]
	Lactobacilus and Enterococcus	Produce bacteriocins [15, 16]
	L. salivarius UCC118	Protect infected mice with L. monocytogenes [17]
	L. acidophilus La-5 1	Inhibited autoinducer-2 (AI-2) and decreased the virulence factors expression of E. coli O157:H7 [18]
	L. acidophilus GP1B	Prevented AI-2 activity of Clostridioides difficile [19]
	L. reuteri RC-14	Production of mediators against Staphylococcus aureus QS, blocked its virulence, and expression of toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 [20]
Suppression of pathogens	L. plantarum	Reduce hydroxy-cis-12-octadecenoic acid via regulation of TNF receptor 2 expression and MEK/ERK pathway [21]
Modulation of gut microbiome and Intestinal Barrier Function	L. fermentum and L. plantarum	In context to Obesity [22, 23], Produce Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs) and Acetic acid, improve tight junction proteins, regulating the immune response, and stimulating host defense peptides [24]
Other mechanisms	Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium	Reduction weight gain, decrease the levels of plasma cholesterol and liver triglycerides [25, 26], bile acids deconjugation [27], impaired glucose tolerance [28]
	L. rhamnosus JB-1	Modified the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-A expression and GABA-B receptors in the brain related to stress and anxiety-related responses [29]
	L. reuteri ATCC PTA 6475	Showed an anti-nociceptive effect via transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 -dependent manner [30]
	L. acidophilus NCFM	Induced expression of μ-opioid and cannabinoid receptors in the gut epithelial cells and presented analgesic impact [31]