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A decrease in butyrate-producing organisms in the gastrointestinal tract is observed after a spinal cord injury. There is also an increase in TNF-α, IL-β, IL-6, IFN-γ, and CCL2 from activated immune cells and colonic tissue. This increase in inflammatory cytokines pushes macrophages to an M1 phenotype, which has been shown to result in increased demyelination, nociceptor activation, and hypersensitivity.
