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SCFAs promoted intracellular bactericidal activity of macrophages via HIF-1α. SCFAs, including butyrate, propionate and acetate, induce hypoxia and HIF-1α expression via HDAC inhibition in macrophages. The activation of HIF-1α signaling enhances the production of antibacterial components, such as lysozymes, leading to the efficient clearance of pathogenic bacteria in macrophages.
