Figure 2.

Intestinal barrier dysfunction as a core pathophysiology of gastrointestinal (GI) dysmotility and metabolic disorder. SCFAs, short-chain fatty acids; ZO, zonula occludens; E-cadherin, epithelial cadherin; EC, enterochromaffin; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1; IL, interleukin; M1, classically activated macrophages; M2, alternatively activated macrophages; TGF-β, transforming growth factor beta; HO-1, heme oxygenase-1; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; ICC, interstitial cell of Cajal; SMC, smooth muscle cell; L-cell, enteroendocrine cell.