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RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK signaling pathway. RTK: receptor tyrosine kinase; GRB: growth factor receptor bound protein; SOS: Son of Sevenless homolog; GDP: guanosine diphosphate; GTP: guanosine triphosphate; RAS: rat sarcoma viral oncogene; RAF: v-raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene; MEK: mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase; ERK: extracellular signal-regulated kinase; PI3K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; AKT: protein kinase B; mTOR: mammalian target of rapamycin; NF-kB: nuclear factor-kB
