Table 1.
Participant demographics and characteristics.
| Characteristic | Total sample (N=3263) | Stress, no behavioral health diagnosis/treatment (n=868) | Stress, with behavioral health diagnosis/treatment (n=940) | No stress, with behavioral health diagnosis/treatment (n=538) | No stress, no behavioral health diagnosis/treatment (n=917) | P valuea | ||||||||
| Age, years (SD) | 51.1 (10.0) | 50.6 (10.3) | 51.2 (9.8) | 51.6 (9.5) | 51.0 (10.3) | .28 | ||||||||
| Gender, n (%) | .35 | |||||||||||||
| Male | 1,602 (49.1) | 393 (45.3) | 376 (40.0) | 264 (49.1) | 569 (62.1) | |||||||||
| Female | 1,661 (50.9) | 475 (54.7) | 564 (60.0) | 274 (50.9) | 348 (37.9) | |||||||||
| Ethnicity, n (%) | .36 | |||||||||||||
| Hispanic | 519 (15.9) | 156 (18.0) | 138 (14.7) | 80 (14.9) | 145 (15.8) | |||||||||
| Non-Hispanic | 1,950 (59.8) | 492 (56.7) | 573 (61.0) | 335 (62.3) | 550 (60.0) | |||||||||
| Unknown | 794 (24.3) | 220 (25.3) | 229 (24.4) | 123 (22.9) | 222 (24.2) | |||||||||
| Race, n (%) | <.001 | |||||||||||||
| Caucasian | 1,683 (51.6) | 418 (48.2) | 556 (59.1) | 308 (57.2) | 401 (43.7) | |||||||||
| Black/ African American | 385 (11.8) | 119 (13.7) | 87 (9.3) | 57 (10.6) | 122 (13.3) | |||||||||
| Asian/ Chinese/ Japanese/ Korean | 208 (6.4) | 51 (5.9) | 20 (2.1) | 28 (5.2) | 109 (11.9) | |||||||||
| Native Hawaiian/ Pacific Islander | 8 (0.2) | 2 (0.2) | 3 (0.3) | 3 (0.6) | 0 (0) | |||||||||
| American Indian/ Alaskan/ Native | 19 (0.6) | 2 (0.2) | 10 (1.1) | 2 (0.4) | 5 (0.5) | |||||||||
| Latino/ Mexican | 1 (0.0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (0.1) | |||||||||
| Other | 327 (10.0) | 115 (13.2) | 75 (8.0) | 38 (7.1) | 99 (10.8) | |||||||||
| Unknown | 632 (19.4) | 161 (18.5) | 189 (20.1) | 102 (19.0) | 180 (19.6) | |||||||||
| Annual income, US $, mean (SD) | 72,946.87 (25,464.50) | 72,164.70 (25,382.00) | 71,598.80 (24,102.90) | 72,332.60 (24,482.60) | 75,429.50 (27,577.40) | .008 | ||||||||
| Education Level, n (%) | ||||||||||||||
| High school | 922 (28.3) | 246 (28.3) | 270 (28.7) | 155 (28.9) | 251 (27.4) | .008 | ||||||||
| Bachelor's degree | 584 (17.9) | 153 (17.6) | 166 (17.7) | 95 (17.6) | 170 (18.6) | .08 | ||||||||
| Graduate degree | 316 (9.7) | 82 (9.4) | 90 (9.6) | 53 (9.8) | 91 (9.9) | .505 | ||||||||
| Diabetes mellitus type, n (%) | .10 | |||||||||||||
| Type 1 | 421 (12.9) | 126 (14.5) | 108 (11.5) | 53 (9.9) | 134 (14.6) | |||||||||
| Type 2 | 2,835 (86.9) | 740 (85.3) | 830 (88.3) | 484 (90.0) | 781 (85.2) | |||||||||
| Unknown | 7 (0.2) | 2 (0.2) | 2 (0.2) | 1 (0.2) | 2 (0.2) | |||||||||
| Duration of illness, years, mean (SD) | 8.4 (8.1) | 8.6 (7.8) | 9.0 (8.6) | 8.3 (7.8) | 7.8 (7.9) | .009 | ||||||||
| Insulin use, n (%) | <.001 | |||||||||||||
| No | 2,208 (67.7) | 552 (63.6) | 622 (66.2) | 363 (67.5) | 671 (73.2) | |||||||||
| Once per day | 428 (13.1) | 131 (15.1) | 113 (12.0) | 77 (14.3) | 107 (11.7) | |||||||||
| Less than once per day | 627 (19.2) | 185 (21.3) | 205 (21.8) | 98 (18.2) | 139 (15.2) | |||||||||
| Blood glucose value over 12 months, mg/dL, mean (SD) | 150.1 (44.1) | 154.5 (43.9) | 152.8 (42.9) | 145.7 (43.4) | 145.9 (46.1) | <.001 | ||||||||
| Percent time in specified range over 12 months, mean (SD) | ||||||||||||||
| Less than 54 mg/dL | 1.08 (4.00) | 1.06 (3.23) | 0.85 (2.89) | 1.50 (6.24) | 1.09 (4.47) | .04 | ||||||||
| 55-70 mg/dL | 1.89 (3.86) | 1.85 (3.36) | 1.79 (3.36) | 2.26 (5.47) | 1.82 (3.89) | .13 | ||||||||
| 71-180 mg/dL | 74.1 (25.6) | 72.1 (25.9) | 72.9 (25.2) | 75.5 (25.6) | 76.5 (27.0) | .001 | ||||||||
| More than 180 mg/dL | 22.9 (25.5) | 25.0 (25.5) | 24.5 (25.0) | 20.7 (24.6) | 20.6 (26.4) | <.001 | ||||||||
| DDSb score, mean (SD) | 2.38 (1.18) | 2.47 (1.21) | 2.77 (1.26) | 2.18 (1.09) | 2.03 (1.13) | <.001 | ||||||||
| DESc score, mean (SD) | 3.84 (0.77) | 3.84 (0.84) | 3.67 (0.74) | 3.94 (0.67) | 3.94 (0.80) | .001 | ||||||||
| Body mass index, mean (SD) | 33.4 (7.4) | 33.3 (7.4) | 34.7 (7.7) | 33.5 (7.7) | 32.0 (7.1) | <.001 | ||||||||
aContinuous variable were compared using analysis of variance; categorical variables were compared using chi-square test.
bDDS: Diabetes Distress Scale.
cDES: Diabetes Empowerment Scale.