Table 2.

Summary of representative biomedical applications of FEMs

	Applications	Representative FEMs	Working mechanisms	Refs
Molecule level	Biomineralization	PVDF, LiTaO3 film	Spontaneous polarization induced surface charge	[ 59 , 61 ]
	Protein adsorption	PVDF, LiTaO3 film	Spontaneous polarization induced surface charge	[ 61 , 62 ]
	Biomolecule detection	BTO nanoparticle film	Piezoelectric effect	[ 93 ]
	Acoustic force spectroscopy	Piezo‐component	Inverse‐piezoelectric effect	[ 100 ]
	Light‐triggered drug release	BiFeO3 nanoparticles	SHG	[ 35c ]
Cell level	Osteogentic differentiation	P(VDF‐TrFE), LiNbO3 substrate	Spontaneous polarization induced surface charge	[ 32 , 62 , 63 ]
		Nylon nanoparticles	Piezoelectrical stimulation	[ 37a ]
		PVDF/Ag‐BTO scaffolds	Piezoelectrical stimulation	[ 80d ]
		Commercial piezotranducer	Inverse‐piezoelectric mechanical stimulation	[ 107 , 108 ]
	Neuronal differentiation	PVDF/BTO/multiwall carbon nanotubes fibrous scaffolds	Spontaneous polarization induced surface charge	[ 55 ]
		PVDF with nanostripe array	Piezoelectrical stimulation	[ 36c ]
		BTO nanoparticles	Piezoelectrical stimulation	[ 78 ]
	Myoblast maturation	CoFe2O4/P(VDF‐TrFE) composite film	Magnetically activated mechanical/piezoelectrical stimulation	[ 85 ]
	Cell death	Fe‐doped LiNbO3 substrate	Light‐mediated electrical stimulation	[ 83 ]
		BiFeO3 nanoparticles	SHG	[ 118 , 119 ]
	Bacterial killing	LiNbO3, LiTaO3 nanoparticles	Pyroelectrocatalytic generation of ROS	[ 69d ]
		tetragonal‐BaTiO3 particles	Piezoelectrocatalytic generation of ROS	[ 120 ]
	Artificial retina	P(8‐AZO‐10)/P(VDF‐TrFE) composite membrane	Light‐mediated piezoelectrical stimulation	[ 84 ]
	Sensing cellular mechanics	PZT nanoribbons	Piezoelectric effect	[ 94 ]
	Cell‐line characterization	PVDF film	Infrared‐induced pyroelectric effect	[ 95a ]
	Cell manipulation (trapping; separation; lysis; gene transfection)	LiNbO3 substrate	Inverse‐piezoelectric effect	[ 32 , 99 , 102 , 103 , 104 ]
	Cell labeling	LiNbO3, BaTiO3, KNbO3, and BiFeO3 nanoparticles	SHG	[ 31 , 32 , 35 ]
	Tooth whitening	BTO nanoparticles	Piezoelectrocatalytic generation of ROS	[ 70 ]
	Tumor eradication	BTO nanoparticles	Piezoelectrocatalytic generation of ROS	[ 71 ]
Tissue level	Bone tissue repair	BTO/P(VDF‐TrFE) composite film	Spontaneous polarization induced surface charge	[ 65 ]
		P(VDF‐TrFE)
	Peripheral nerve regeneration	PVDF‐based scaffolds	Spontaneous polarization induced surface charge	[ 67 ]
	Recovery of Degenerative Dopaminergic Neurons	BaTiO3 nanoparticles with carbon shell	Piezoelectric generation of electromagnetic fields	[ 79 ]
	Remote‐manipulative nerve stimulation	Graphene sandwiched PVDF film	Pyroelectrical stimulation	[ 92 ]
	Precise sub‐organ neuromodulation	PZT ceramic array	Inverse‐piezoelectric mechanical stimulation	[ 109 ]
	Cardiac pacemakers	Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3‐PbTiO3 film	Piezoelectrical stimulation	[ 71 , 90 ]
	Deep brain stimulation	Pb(In1/2Nb1/2)O3—Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3—PbTiO3 film	Piezoelectrical stimulation	[ 91 ]
	E‐skin	PVDF/ graphene microstructures	Piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and piezoresistive effect	[ 97a ]
		Au/P3HT/P(VDF‐TrFE) with a PEDOT:PSS gate electrodes	Ferroelectric‐gate field‐effect	[ 97c ]
	Cardiovascular disease diagnosis	PVDF composite nanofibers	Piezoelectric effect	[ 98 ]
	Bioimaging	BTO/KTiOPO4 nanoparticles, triphenylalanine peptide nanoassemblies	SHG	[ 56 , 113 , 117 ]
		Sr3Sn2O7:Nd3+ crystal	Piezoluminescence	[ 114 ]