Table 2.
Regression coefficients in multivariable linear mixed models for the EQ-5D utility score and the EQ-VAS and ORs in multivariable logistic mixed models for the dimensions of health status
| During the first 2 years after injury | ||||||||
| Linear regression coefficients (95% CI) | ORs (95% CI) | |||||||
| EQ-5D utility | EQ-VAS | Mobility | Self-care | Usual activities | Pain/discomfort | Anxiety/ depression | Cognition | |
| Female sex | −0.03 (−0.04 to −0.01)* | −1.43 (−2.30 to −0.55)* | 1.08 (0.91 to 1.29) | 1.08 (0.95 to 1.22) | 1.51 (1.32 to 1.72)* | 1.56 (1.35 to 1.80)* | 2.02 (1.62 to 2.51)* | 2.01 (1.54 to 2.63)* |
| Age (years) | ||||||||
| 18–24 | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
| 25–44 | 0.01 (−0.03 to 0.04) | −0.32 (−2.87 to 2.24) | 1.13 (0.70 to 1.83) | 0.88 (0.61 to 1.28) | 1.18 (0.82 to 1.71) | 1.08 (0.72 to 1.61) | 0.97 (0.53 to 1.77) | 0.84 (0.41 to 1.72) |
| 45–64 | 0.05 (0.02 to 0.09)* | 1.22 (-1.15 to 3.60) | 1.20 (0.76 to 1.87) | 0.79 (0.56 to 1.13) | 0.89 (0.63 to 1.26) | 0.81 (0.55 to 1.18) | 0.37 (0.21 to 0.66)* | 0.37 (0.19 to 0.73)* |
| 65–74 | 0.12 (0.08 to 0.16)* | 6.43 (3.76 to 9.10)* | 0.84 (0.51 to 1.38) | 0.55 (0.38 to 0.82)* | 0.53 (0.36 to 0.78)* | 0.51 (0.33 to 0.78)* | 0.10 (0.05 to 0.20)* | 0.14 (0.07 to 0.31)* |
| ≥75 | 0.09 (0.05 to 0.13)* | 4.98 (2.22 to 7.73)* | 1.39 (0.82 to 2.33) | 0.98 (0.66 to 1.46) | 0.64 (0.43 to 0.96)* | 0.45 (0.29 to 0.70)* | 0.13 (0.07 to 0.26)* | 0.42 (0.19 to 0.92)* |
| No of comorbidities | ||||||||
| 0 | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
| 1 | −0.03 (−0.04 to −0.01)* | −2.72 (−3.79 to −1.65)* | 1.45 (1.18 to 1.77)* | 1.19 (1.03 to 1.39)* | 1.29 (1.11 to 1.51)* | 1.23 (1.04 to 1.46)* | 1.65 (1.27 to 2.15)* | 1.36 (0.99 to 1.88) |
| ≥2 | −0.05 (−0.07 to −0.04)* | −4.08 (−5.30 to −2.87)* | 2.13 (1.69 to 2.68)* | 1.62 (1.38 to 1.91)* | 1.84 (1.54 to 2.20)* | 1.80 (1.47 to 2.20)* | 2.34 (1.74 to 3.13)* | 2.01 (1.40 to 2.87)* |
| Injury Severity Score† | −0.01 (−0.02 to 0.00)* | −0.93 (−1.53 to −0.33)* | 1.10 (0.98 to 1.23) | 1 (0.92 to 1.09) | 1.08 (0.99 to 1.18) | 0.92 (0.83 to 1.01) | 1.12 (0.97 to 1.30) | 1.27 (1.05 to 1.52)* |
| Length of stay at hospital (days) | ||||||||
| 1–2 | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
| 3–7 | −0.05 (−0.07 to −0.03)* | −3.40 (−4.52 to −2.29)* | 2.14 (1.73 to 2.64)* | 1.56 (1.33 to 1.84)* | 1.72 (1.47 to 2.03)* | 1.69 (1.40 to 2.04)* | 1.69 (1.27 to 2.25)* | 1.15 (0.81 to 1.62) |
| 8–14 | −0.10 (−0.12 to −0.08)* | −6.24 (−7.70 to −4.77)* | 3.21 (2.39 to 4.29)* | 2.60 (2.12 to 3.19)* | 2.67 (2.13 to 3.35)* | 2.15 (1.68 to 2.75)* | 2.73 (1.90 to 3.92)* | 1.77 (1.13 to 2.76)* |
| ≥15 | −0.15 (−0.18 to −0.12)* | −9.32 (−11.43 to −7.22)* | 6.07 (3.80 to 9.69)* | 3.42 (2.51 to 4.66)* | 3.97 (2.77 to 5.71)* | 2.43 (1.66 to 3.55)* | 4.15 (2.48 to 6.95)* | 2.81 (1.47 to 5.37)* |
| Functional Capacity Index | ||||||||
| 1 (worse state) | −0.07 (−0.15 to 0.00)* | −0.89 (−6.27 to 4.48) | 1.51 (0.57 to 4.06) | 1.79 (0.87 to 3.71) | 1.14 (0.51 to 2.54) | 1.00 (0.42 to 2.41) | 1.46 (0.41 to 5.19) | 1.63 (0.31 to 8.57) |
| 2 | −0.06 (−0.10 to −0.03)* | −1.22 (−3.57 to 1.12) | 1.89 (1.19 to 3.01)* | 1.94 (1.42 to 2.66)* | 1.59 (1.12 to 2.27)* | 1.28 (0.87 to 1.89) | 1.57 (0.89 to 2.77) | 0.67 (0.32 to 1.38) |
| 3 | −0.03 (−0.07 to 0.00)* | −0.48 (−2.84 to 1.89) | 2.11 (1.34 to 3.31)* | 1.47 (1.08 to 2.02)* | 1.88 (1.32 to 2.68)* | 1.14 (0.78 to 1.66) | 1.10 (0.62 to 1.95) | 0.91 (0.44 to 1.86) |
| 4 | −0.03 (−0.05 to −0.01)* | −0.04 (−1.50 to 1.43) | 1.62 (1.22 to 2.15)* | 1.57 (1.29 to 1.93)* | 1.42 (1.14 to 1.77)* | 1.28 (1.01 to 1.63)* | 1.03 (0.72 to 1.48) | 0.57 (0.36 to 0.91)* |
| 5 (best possible state)‡ | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
| Injury classification§ | ||||||||
| Lower extremity injury | ||||||||
| Pelvic injury | −0.04 (−0.07 to −0.02)* | −1.64 (−3.37 to 0.10) | 2.74 (1.96 to 3.83)* | 1.29 (1.02 to 1.64)* | 0.97 (0.74 to 1.25) | 1.33 (0.99 to 1.78) | 0.67 (0.43 to 1.04) | 0.57 (0.33 to 0.98)* |
| Hip fracture | −0.01 (−0.04 to 0.02) | −0.34 (−2.20 to 1.52) | 2.62 (1.82 to 3.79)* | 1.28 (0.99 to 1.66) | 1.05 (0.79 to 1.40) | 1.04 (0.76 to 1.41) | 0.90 (0.57 to 1.42) | 1.00 (0.57 to 1.77) |
| Tibia, complex foot or femur fracture | −0.05 (−0.07 to −0.02)* | −1.14 (−2.75 to 0.48) | 6.85 (4.97 to 9.44)* | 1.27 (1.02 to 1.58)* | 1.71 (1.33 to 2.18)* | 1.34 (1.03 to 1.76)* | 0.8 (0.53 to 1.19) | 0.71 (0.43 to 1.18) |
| Upper extremity injury | ||||||||
| Shoulder and upper arm injury | −0.03 (−0.06 to −0.01)* | −2.00 (−3.44 to −0.55)* | 0.56 (0.42 to 0.74)* | 2.22 (1.82 to 2.71)* | 1.58 (1.28 to 1.96)* | 2.05 (1.60 to 2.61)* | 1.01 (0.70 to 1.44) | 0.71 (0.46 to 1.12) |
| Radius, ulna or hand fracture | −0.02 (−0.04 to 0.00)* | −0.59 (−2.31 to 1.12) | 0.42 (0.30 to 0.58)* | 1.46 (1.16 to 1.85)* | 1.22 (0.95 to 1.57) | 1.23 (0.93 to 1.63) | 1.44 (0.94 to 2.19) | 0.87 (0.51 to 1.48) |
| Traumatic brain injury | ||||||||
| Head injury with AIS <2 | 0.02 (0.01 to 0.04)* | 0.64 (−0.41 to 1.70) | 0.78 (0.64 to 0.96)* | 0.57 (0.49 to 0.67)* | 0.77 (0.66 to 0.90)* | 0.85 (0.72 to 1.01) | 1.15 (0.88 to 1.49) | 2.91 (2.12 to 4.01)* |
| Head injury with AIS >3 | 0.04 (0.00 to 0.08)* | 2.07 (−0.66 to 4.80) | 0.86 (0.51 to 1.43) | 0.92 (0.62 to 1.37) | 0.78 (0.52 to 1.17) | 0.90 (0.58 to 1.39) | 1.20 (0.62 to 2.34) | 3.29 (1.45 to 7.49)* |
| Facial injury | 0.02 (0.00 to 0.05)* | 0.78 (−1.15 to 2.70) | 0.52 (0.35 to 0.75)* | 0.75 (0.56 to 1.00)* | 0.67 (0.51 to 0.89)* | 0.67 (0.49 to 0.91)* | 1.10 (0.68 to 1.78) | 1.21 (0.68 to 2.16) |
| Thoracic injury | 0.06 (0.03 to 0.10)* | 3.11 (0.77 to 5.46)* | 0.54 (0.35 to 0.84)* | 0.56 (0.40 to 0.78)* | 0.55 (0.40 to 0.78)* | 0.68 (0.47 to 1.00)* | 0.58 (0.32 to 1.05) | 0.60 (0.29 to 1.24) |
| Rib fracture | −0.01 (-0.03 to 0.01) | −0.07 (−1.61 to 1.48) | 1.07 (0.80 to 1.43) | 1.02 (0.81 to 1.27) | 0.93 (0.74 to 1.16) | 1.63 (1.26 to 2.11)* | 0.96 (0.65 to 1.41) | 0.85 (0.53 to 1.36) |
| Abdominal injury | 0.02 (−0.02 to 0.06) | 1.68 (−1.27 to 4.63) | 0.63 (0.36 to 1.09) | 0.57 (0.36 to 0.88)* | 0.67 (0.44 to 1.02) | 0.56 (0.35 to 0.90)* | 0.93 (0.45 to 1.95) | 1.55 (0.65 to 3.69) |
| Spine injury | ||||||||
| Spinal cord injury | −0.06 (−0.16 to 0.04) | −3.03 (−9.85 to 3.80) | 1.86 (0.53 to 6.60) | 1.33 (0.53 to 3.33) | 1.35 (0.47 to 3.88) | 11.61 (2.86 to 47.17)* | 0.92 (0.18 to 4.71) | 0.30 (0.04 to 2.35) |
| Stable vertebral fracture or disc injury | −0.06 (−0.08 to −0.03)* | −4.16 (−5.99 to −2.33)* | 1.31 (0.93 to 1.84) | 1.67 (1.30 to 2.15)* | 1.79 (1.37 to 2.34)* | 2.45 (1.79 to 3.35)* | 1.14 (0.72 to 1.79) | 0.82 (0.47 to 1.42) |
| Admission to intensive care unit | 0.00 (−0.02 to 0.03) | −0.47 (−2.35 to 1.41) | 0.81 (0.56 to 1.18) | 1.01 (0.77 to 1.32) | 1.04 (0.78 to 1.38) | 1.08 (0.79 to 1.49) | 0.77 (0.48 to 1.23) | 2.22 (1.26 to 3.91)* |
| Pre-injury work status | 0.00 (−0.02 to 0.02) | −0.23 (−1.62 to 1.17) | 0.73 (0.57 to 0.95)* | 0.94 (0.78 to 1.14) | 1.01 (0.83 to 1.23) | 1.12 (0.90 to 1.40) | 0.74 (0.53 to 1.04) | 0.92 (0.61 to 1.39) |
| Educational level | ||||||||
| Low‡ | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
| Middle | 0.00 (−0.01 to 0.02) | 0.39 (−0.66 to 1.43) | 0.94 (0.77 to 1.15) | 0.96 (0.83 to 1.11) | 0.93 (0.80 to 1.08) | 1.07 (0.90 to 1.26) | 0.71 (0.55 to 0.92)* | 1.05 (0.77 to 1.45) |
| High | 0.02 (0.00 to 0.03)* | 0.36 (−0.76 to 1.49) | 0.91 (0.73 to 1.13) | 0.99 (0.84 to 1.15) | 0.75 (0.64 to 0.89)* | 0.82 (0.68 to 0.98)* | 0.64 (0.48 to 0.86)* | 1.06 (0.75 to 1.51) |
| Frailty | −0.09 (−0.11 to −0.07)* | −5.12 (−6.54 to −3.71)* | 2.38 (1.75 to 3.24)* | 1.79 (1.46 to 2.20)* | 2.07 (1.63 to 2.62)* | 1.48 (1.18 to 1.87)* | 4.94 (3.55 to 6.86)* | 4.37 (2.89 to 6.61)* |
| Pre-injury status¶ | 0.49 (0.45 to 0.53)* | 0.47 (0.44 to 0.50)* | ||||||
| No problems‡ | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
| Moderate/severe problems | 13.58 (10.62 to 17.36)* | 20.02 (15.50 to 25.86)* | 6.39 (5.20 to 7.86)* | 6.12 (5.09 to 7.36)* | 30.22 (21.62 to 42.25)* | 371.77 (224.34 to 616.10)* | ||
*P value of ≤0.05.
†Regression coefficients and ORs (95% CI) represent a four-unit increase on the Injury Severity Score.
‡Reference category.
§Regression coefficients and ORs (95% CI) for patients suffering the injury compared with patients not having the injury.
¶Regression coefficients (95% CI) for pre-injury EQ-5D utility score and the pre-injury EQ-VAS for EQ-5D utility score and EQ-VAS, respectively. ORs (95% CI) for pre-injury moderate and severe problems on the dimensions of the EQ-5D questionnaire (pre-injury mobility, self-care, pain/discomfort, anxiety/depression and cognition, respectively, for the columns).
AIS, Abbreviated Injury Scale; EQ-5D, EuroQol-5-dimensions-3-levels; EQ-VAS, EuroQol Visual Analogue Scale; Ref, reference.