Table 3.
Novel EV‐associated therapeutic strategies against cancer metastasis
| Therapeutic means | Interventions performed | Implications of study | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Inhibiting tdEV secretion | Administration of sulfisoxazole | Diminishing sEV biogenesis and secretion through interference with ETA and ESCRT‐dependent downregulation of CD63, RAB27a and RAB7 | Im et al 110 |
| Utilization of WRG28 therapy | WRG28 inhibits DDR2, which is important in breast cancer metastasis and found abundant in tdEVs, to halt tumour‐microenvironment interaction | Grither et al 111 | |
| Blocking the uptake of tdEVs | Administration of anti‐CD9, anti‐CD63 antibodies | Antibodies targeting specific EV proteins can inhibit EV uptake | Nishida‐Aoki et al 114 |
| Administration of tocilizumab | Tocilizumab neutralizes IL‐6 produced by tumour EV‐educated mesenchymal stem cells in osteosarcoma | Baglio et al 115 | |
| RGD and HYD‐1 peptides | RGD and HYD‐1 block integrins on tumour‐derived EVs responsible for lung‐ and liver‐tropic metastasis (α6β1, α6β4, and αVβ5) | Hoshino et al 51 | |
| TC I‐15 | TC I‐15 blocks integrin α2β1‐mediated EV uptake by lung fibroblasts | Kong et al 116 | |
| R243 | R243, a CCR8 inhibitor, halts EV uptake by GBM cells, and thus inhibits the induction of temozolomide‐resistant phenotypes | Berenguer et al 117 | |
| Removal of tdEVs from circulation | EGFR‐targeting aptamers functionalized with mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN‐AP) | Binding between MSN‐AP and lung cancer‐derived EVs expressing EGFR allows hepatic uptake and subsequent elimination of cancerous EVs from circulation | Xie et al 118 |
| EVs to improve the efficacy of immunotherapy and cancer vaccine | DC‐derived EVs (Dex) | Stimulation of T‐cell responses and conversion of tumours into stronger immunogenic targets. | Pitt et al 119 |
| Incorporation of fusion‐competent G protein of VSV into ‘exosome‐like vesicles’ (ELVs) | Increased uptake of ELVs by DCs, enhanced DC co‐stimulatory and effector functions, and acceleration of antigen internalization and presentation | Temchura et al 120 | |
| Macrophages (M1)‐derived exosomes | Boosted efficacy of Trp2 vaccine through increased accumulation of immune cells in tumours, and inhibition of tumour growth | Cheng et al 121 |