Table 1.
The regulation of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) by different mediators.
| Mediator | Effect on ACE2 Expression | Pathway | Associated Disease |
|---|---|---|---|
| AT1 receptor blockers, such as olmesartan, losartan, telmisartan, azilsartan | Upregulation | Renin–angiotensin system; extracellular-signal-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK/MAPK) signaling pathway; nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway | Acute lung injury, hypertensive cardiovascular and renal damage |
| ACE inhibitors, such as Lisinopril, Enalapril | Downregulation | Renin–angiotensin system | Myocardial infarction |
| Vitamin D | Upregulation | Renin–angiotensin system | Acute lung injury (ALI) Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) |
| Spironolactone | Upregulation | NADPH oxidase related pathway | Heart failure |
| Resveratrol | Upregulation | alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) signaling pathway | Diabetes mellitus, cardiac fibrosis and heart disease |
| Apelin-13 | Upregulation | Apelin-the apelin receptor (APJ) activation pathway | Cardiovascular diseases |
| Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) | Upregulation | Cytokine signaling pathway | SARS coronavirus diabetes mellitus |
| Interferon α (IFNα), Interferon γ (IFNγ) | Downregulation | SARS coronavirus | |
| Interleukin-4 (IL-4) | Downregulation | SARS coronavirus |