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. 2021 Jan 4;22(1):433. doi: 10.3390/ijms22010433

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© 2021 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Illustrative representation of localization and mechanism of action of PPARs. PPARs belong to the nuclear receptor superfamily and consist of PPARα, PPARβ/δ, and PPARγ. Endogenous PPAR ligands can be transferred from the cytosol or generated in the nuclear membrane. PPARs bind to the specific DNA sequence AACT AGGNCA A AGGTCA, PPAR responsive element (PPRE), and their activation requires heterodimerization with another nuclear receptor, RXR. PPARs modulate numerous target genes by co-activator or co-inhibitor activity. PPARs are mainly expressed in the nucleus, and could shuttle from nuclear to cytoplasm. PPARγ transport from nuclear to cytoplasmic occurs via the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) cascade, a component of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/MEK 1/2. PPARs, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors; RXR, 9-cis retinoic acid receptor.