Table 1.

Neuropsychological and academic performance outcomes: Characteristics of the selected studies in these domains, where cognitive and language functions are included. Studies have been ordered by main age of the assessment, starting from age 3 years. The results column includes a short synopsis specifically highlighting the main findings related to late preterm groups’ performance.

Authors, Year and Location	Study Design/ Year of Birth	Study Population	Primary Objective	Assessment Ages/Tests or Tasks/ Confounders Adjusted for	Results/ Short Synopsis
Baron et al., 2012.US [36]	Longitudinal cohort study from PETIT (Prematurity’s Effects on Toddlers, Infants and Teens) Born 2004–2006	ELBW n = 52 LPT n = 196 Control group FT n = 121	To compare ELBW, LPT and FT children with a FT control group on a novel battery of experimental computerized EF tasks.	3 years Selected EF tasks: -P-CPT -Boy-Girl Stroop -Go/No-Go -Jack’s Boxes -DAS Confounders: GA. Maternal educational level	LPT < FT on complex working memory. LPT = FT on response inhibition measures. LPT < FT on General conceptual ability (GCA) LPT > FT on omission errors in the P-CPT task Selective EF tasks can distinguish between preterm groups of different GA and FT children in preschool years. LPT performed worse than FT on complex working memory.
Stene-Larsen et al., 2014. Norway [37]	Cohort study from Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study Born 1999–2008	LPT n = 1673 ET n = 7109 Control group FTn = 30,641	To investigate the risk of communication impairments at age 18 and 36 months in children born ET and LPT.	18 months and 3 years -ASQ (Questionnaire) Confounders: Child gender, maternal age, maternal level of education, maternal gestational diabetes, preeclampsia/HELLP syndrome, multiple gestation, SGA.	LPT (and ET): increased risk of communication impairments at both ages. -Communication impairment (18 months): ET aRR 1.27 (95%CI 1.12–1.44), LPT aRR 1.74 (95%CI 1.41–2.14) -Expressive language impairment (36 months): ET aRR 1.22 (95%CI 1.07–1.39), LPT aRR 1.37 (95%CI 1.09–1.73) LPT are at increased risk for communication impairments. Given the large number of children potentially affected, this may result in significant health care costs.
Brown et al., 2014. Canada [38]	Cohorts study Secondary analysis of National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY) Born 1994–2009	2 to 3 years LPT n = 1102 ET n = 4333 4 to 5 years LPT n = 866 ET n = 3478 Control group FT 2 to 3 years N = 9664 4 to 5 years N = 7859	To elucidate the role that GA plays in determining risks for poor developmental outcomes in LPT and ET in the context of proximal social processes	2–3 years and 4–5 years - 2–3 years: MSD - 4–5 years: PPVT-R - Parenting Scale Confounders: Smoking, alcohol use during pregnancy, placental ischemia and other hypoxia, maternal diabetes or other medical condition during pregnancy. Social context as described in terms of family structure. Family resources and family functioning. Child gender.	2–3 years: LPT > FT rate of developmental delay (16.7% LPT, 13.9% FT). LPT: aRR 1.13 (95%CI 0.90-1.42) 4–5 years: LPT > FT rate of receptive vocabulary delay (13.1% LPT, 12.7% FT) LPT: aRR 1.06 (95%CI 0.70–1.43). LPT closer to FT. Social factors (not GA) maybe the most important factor influencing developmental outcomes
Brumbaugh, et al., 2014.US [39]	Prospective cohort study Born 2005–2006	LPT n = 39 Control group FT n = 44	To assess whether LPT children demonstrate impaired EF compared with full term children	4 years -Battery of EF tasks -PPVT -BRIEF-P Confounders: Verbal IQ, GA	LPT < FT on verbal inhibitory control and short term verbal memory tasks. LPT = FT on nonverbal inhibitory control or spatial memory. Parents of LPT and FT rated children’s behaviour similarly. GA as a predictor of the task performance. LPT demonstrated compromised verbal inhibitory control and short-term verbal memory compared with full-term peers. LPT may not be spared from altered brain development.
Shah et al., 2016. US [40]	Cohort study Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) Born 2001	LPT n = 1000 Control group ET n = 1800 FTn = 3200	To compare developmental outcomes of LPT with ET and FT from infancy to kindergarten	9 and 24 months, 3 years, 4–6 years -9 and 24 months: BSF-R -Preschool-Kindergarten: -PPVT -Pre-CTOPP -Preschool pre-reading assessment and mathematics Confounders: -Maternal age, maternal race or ethnicity, socioeconomic status at 9 months, parenting, infant gender, birth weight, early intervention services -At preschool and Kindergarten: age at assessment, month of school	-9 months: LPT < FT (and ET) in developmental outcomes (T = 47.31) vs. ET (T = 49.12) and FT (T = 50.09). -24 months: LPT = FT in developmental outcomes -Preschool age (3 years): LPT < FT in pre-reading skills and mathematics. -Kindergarten (4–6 years): LPT < FT in reading. Although LPT seem to catch up and demonstrate comparable developmental outcomes to FT at 24 months, later on they demonstrate less optimal pre-reading and reading skills and maths at preschool and kindergarten time points.
Sejer et al., 2019. Denmark [41]	Cohort study Lifestyle During Pregnancy Study (LDPS) Born 2003–2008	VPT to MPT n = 8 LPT n = 40 Control group FT n = 1728	To assess the impact of GA on intelligence, attention and executive function at 5 years	5 years -WPPSI-R -TEACh -BRIEF Confounders: Maternal age at birth, maternal IQ, average alcohol consumption in pregnancy, smoking in pregnancy, parity, maternal marital status, parental educational level, child gender.	Very to moderate preterm obtain -10.6 IQ vs. full term and -5.3 in teacher-assessed Global Executive Composite, adjusted results. No association with poor cognition were shown in LPT. No associations between LPT and poor cognitive outcomes were shown at age 5. GA may play an important role in determining cognitive abilities independent of maternal intelligence and parental education.
Hodel et al., 2016. US [42]	Observational cohort study Born: NA	MLPT n = 45 Control group FT n = 46	To determine whether low-risk, healthy children born MLPT also exhibit impairments in the development of prefrontal-dependent hot EF skills in comparison to term children at preschool age.	4.5–5 years -Hot EF tasks -Cool EF tasks -WPPSI-III -BRIEF-P Confounders: Intelligence, processing speed	M-LPT at age 4.5 years< FT less likely to choose larger, delayed rewards across all levels of reward magnitude on a delay discontinuing task using tangible rewards. MLPT = FT on a delay aversion task involving abstract rewards and on measures of cool EFs. Evidence of disrupted hot EFs in children born MLPT at preschool age as measured on a delay discontinuing tasks.
Hornman et al., 2017. Netherlands [43]	Cohort study Longitudinal Preterm Outcome Project (LOLLIPOP) Born 2002–2003	EPT n = 376 MLPT n = 688 Control group FT n = 403	To assess the stability of developmental problems before school entry at 4 years and one year after school entry at 5 years	4 and 5 years -ASQ Confounders: Sex, SGA, multiple birth, low education level of the parents, non-Dutch birth country of parent or children, single parent family	4 years: MLPT < FT 7.9% (p = 0.016); EPT 13% (p < 0.001), FT 4.1% 5 years: MLPT = FT On underlying domains, MLPT and EPT had mainly emerging motor problems and resolving communication problems, but the changing rates of MLPT were lower. After school entry, the overall development of MLPT shows stability patterns comparable with FT. On the underlying domains, MLPT had patterns comparable with EPT but lower rates.
Quigley et al., 2012. UK [44]	Cohort study Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) Born 2000–2002	VPT n = 84 MPT n = 92 LPT n = 471 ET n = 1596 Control group FT n = 5407	To compare school performance at age 5 years in four groups of preterm children differing in GA (ET, LPT, MPT and VPT) and a FT control group.	5 years -FSP Confounders: Child gender, ethnicity, whether firstborn, breastfeeding duration, month of birth, mother’s age at, delivery, marital status, education, social class, languages spoken in the child’s home	% not reaching a good level of overall achievement: -FT: 51% -ET: 55% aRR 1.05 (95%CI 1–1.11) -LPT: 59% aRR 1.12 (95%CI 1.04–1.22) -MPT: 63% aRR 1.19 (95%CI 0.98–1.45) -VPT: 66% aRR 1,19 (95%CI 1–1.42) LPT birth is associated with an increased risk of poorer educational achievement at age 5 years.
Baron et al., 2014. US [45]	Retrospective observational cross-sectional cohort study from PETIT (Prematurity’s Effects on Toddlers, Infants and Teens) Born 2000–2009 3 years assessment: Born 1998–2006 6 years assessment:	3 years -ELBW n = 93 -LPT n = 398 Control group FT n = 177 6 years -ELBW n = 126 -LPT n = 102 Control group FT n = 183	To use latent means analysis in structural equation modeling (SEM) to make between-group comparisons (ELBW, LPT and FT) in EF at two time points: preschool (3 years) and early school age (6–7 years)	3 and 6 years - Baron-Hopkins Board Test -DAS EF indicators: 1.Noun fluency 2.Action-verb fluency 3.Similarities reasoning 4.Matrices reasoning 5.Working memory Confounders: No	3 years: LPT < FT (0.61 SD). 6 years: LPT = FT (0.10 SD) Statistically significant between-group differences at age 3, but no longer present at age 6. LPT showed higher risk for EFsdeficits than FT at an early age. Deficitscould represent a transient developmental delay likely to resolve at an older age, or a more subtle adverse effect likely to persist over the life span.
Rider et al., 2016. US [46]	Retrospective cohort study from PETIT (Prematurity’s Effects on Toddlers, Infants and Teens) Born 3 years assessment: 2006–2010 6 years assessment: 2004–2007	3 years -ELBW n = 53 -LPT n = 228 Control group FT n = 74 6 years -ELBW n = 42 -LPT n = 141 Control group FT n=82	To provide convergent validity evidence for TVSC To examine performance differences between participants born ELBW, LPT or at FT at preschool (3 years) and early school age (6 years)	3 and 6 years -TVSC -Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI, 5th ed.) -DAS-II -Baron-Hopkins Board Test -Purdue Pegboard Test of Manual Dexterity Confounders: No	3 years: LPT < FT 6 years: LPT = FT TVSC practical differences between LPT and FT were small at age 3 and trivial at age 6 years. Although LPT at 6 years performed comparably to FT on the TVSC, LPT should not be considered absent of risk.
Bogicevic et al., 2019. Netherlands [47]	Prospective cohort study, Study in Attention of Preterm children (STAP Project) Born 2010–2011	MLPT n = 88 Control group FT n = 83	To compare cognitive and behavioural functioning at 6 years. To assess which toddler skills predict later cognitive and behavioural functioning	18–24 months and 6 years 18 months: UTATE. 24 months: Bayley-III-NL 6 years:WPPSI-III-NL; CBCL/6-18 Confounders: Maternal education	- MLPT < FT on processing speed - MLPT > FT on behavioural problems. -At 6 years: Attention problems were predicted by poorer orienting of attention skills at 18 months and lower performance IQ was predicted by lower alerting of attention at 18 months. Full scale and verbal IQ were predicted by language skills at 24 months. Poorer functioning in MLPT at primary school-age reveals vulnerabilities specifically in processing speed and attention problems, which suggests the need for specific assessment of these skills. Poorer orienting of attention skills at toddler age as early predictors of later attention problems.
Woythaler et al., 2015. US [48]	Cohort study Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) Born 2001	LPT n = 950 Control group Term n = 4900	To assess neurodevelopmental outcomes from infancy to school age and determine predictive values of earlier developmental testing compared with school-age testing	24 months, 4–6 years (kindergarten) 24 months: MDI of BSF-R 4–6 years: TSRS Confounders: Maternal race, education, marital status, prenatal care, primary language, impoverished household, gender, fetal growth, plurality, delivery type, gestational age, and breastfeeding	- LPT >FT in aOR of worse TSRSs (aOR 1.52 (95%CI 1.06–2.18) -Positive predictive value of MDI <70 at 24 months and a TSRS <5% at 4–6 years was 10.4% LPT continue to be delayed at kindergarten compared with FT. The predictive validity of having a TSRS in the bottom 5% given a MDI<70 at 24 months was poor. A child who tested within the normal range (>85) at 24 months had an excellent chance of testing in the normal range at kindergarten.
Chan & Quigley, 2014. UK [49]	Cohort study Millenium Cohort Study (MCS) Born 2000–2001	VPT n = 69 MPT n = 67 LPT n = 360 ET n = 1258 Control group Term n = 4277	To investigate the effect of GA particularly in LPT and ET on school performance at 7 years	7 years -KS1 Confounders: Maternal age at delivery, maternal education, maternal socioeconomic status, marital status, multiple births, whether firstborn, smoking during pregnancy. Gender, age within school year.	Increased risk of poor performance: -VPT: aRR 1.78 (95%CI 1.24–2.54) -MPT: aRR 1.71 (95%CI 1.15–2.54) -LPT: aRR 1.36 (95%CI 1.09–1.68) -ET: aRR 1.07 (95%CI 0.94–1.23) LPT birth negatively impacts academic outcomes at age 7 years as measured by KS1 school assessment.
Sheehan et al., 2017. Canada [50]	Cohort study Born 2000–2011	ELBW n = 105 LPT n = 248 Control group FT n = 132	To examine the effect of preterm birth on planning skills in early and middle childhood using problem solving tasks with different cognitive workload demands	3, 6 and 9 years -Monkey Tree task (MTT) -DAS/DAS-II -Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test -B-HB -BRIEF-P Confounders: Gender, maternal education	- 3 years: LPT < FT in problem solving (MTT). - 6 to 9 years: LPT = FT in problem solving efficiency. Significant correlations between MTT measures and performance on other EF tasks. MTT captured significant performance differences in planning skills between LPT and FT. Cognitive workload, as a function of problem complexity, affects planning skills in young LPT who show a subtle, but distinguishable, adverse neuropsychological outcome.
Brumbaugh, et al., 2016. US [51]	Observational cohort study Born 2000–2006	LPT n = 52 Control group FT n = 74	To analyze the potential occurrence of altered brain development in LPT	6–13 years -PBS-30 -WISC-IV -WRAT -GPT-PANESS Confounders: No	-LPT < FT in processing speed, visuo-spatial perception and memory. -LPT > FT on behavioural difficulties from parental reports -LPT = FT in cognitive ability/academic achievement. -LPT = FT on intracranial volumes, but less total tissue and more cerebrospinal fluid in LPT. Tissue differences in the cerebrum are distributed across cortical and subcortical tissue. LPT had a relatively smaller thalamus than FT. Only FT demonstrated significant decreases in cortical tissue volume and thickness with age. LPT demonstrated more difficulty in processing speed, visual-spatial perception, and memory. Together the behavioural, cognitive and brain structural findings suggest the potential insult of LPT birth on the developing brain given the differences persist at school age.

ASQ: Ages and Stages Questionnaire; BRIEF-P: Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool version; B-HB test: Baron-Hopkins Board test; BSF-R: Bayley Short Form-Research edition; CBCL: Child behavior Checklist; DAS: Differential Ability Scales; EF: executive function; ELBW: extremely low birth weight; EPT: early preterm; ET: early term; FSP: Foundation Stage Profile; FT: full-term; GA: gestational age; GPT: Grooved Pegboard Test; IQ: Intelligence Quotient; ITSEA: Infant Toddler Social Emotional Assessment;KS1: Key Stage 1; LPT: late preterm; MDI: Mental Developmental Index; MLPT: Moderate-late preterm; MPT: moderate preterm; MSD: Motor and Social Developmental Scale; MTT: Monkey Tree Task; NA: Not available; PBS-30: Pediatric Behavior Scale-30; P-CPT: Preschool Continuous Performance Test;: small for gestational age; PANESS: Physical and Neurological Examination for Soft Signs; PPVT: Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test; Pre-CTOPP: Preschool Comprehensive Test of Phonological and Print Processing; TEACh: Test of Everyday Attention for Children; TSRS: Total School Readiness Score; TVSC: Test of Visuospatial Construction; UTATE: Utrecht Tasks of Attention in Toddlers using Eye tracking; VPT: very preterm; WISC: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children; WPPSI: Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence;: Wide Range Achievement Test.