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The neurotransmitter imbalance in HE and DE. The changes in neurotransmitters, such as glutamate, GABA, serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline, may lead to motor dysfunction, learning and memory dysfunction, and emotional disturbance. The levels of dopamine and choline are decreased and the levels of glutamate, GABA, and norepinephrine are increased in HE and DE. However, Dopamine and serotonin levels are elevated in HE. Conversely, serotonin level is reduced in HE.
