Brain vasculature
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Increased BBB permeability
BBB breakdown
Increased level of water channel molecule, AQP-4
Decreased levels of tight junction molecules, such as ZO-1 and occluding
Changes in BBB integrity and permeability by increased bile acid
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Glial cells
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Levels of GFAP in HE and DE
Astrocyte dysfunction in ammonia detoxification in HE
Hyperammonaemia-driven neuroinflammation in HE
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Neurotransmitters
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Impairment of neuronal function
Changes in GABA, glutamate, choline levels
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Glucose metabolism
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Insulin resistance
Impairment of glucose metabolism, including glucose uptake
Protective effect after inhibition of SGLT1 and/or SGLT2
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Cognitive function
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etc.
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