Table 7.
Higher Average Calorie Consumption in Villages/Urban Sub-blocks with Lower Sanitation CoverageConditional on Detailed Demography-specific Household Employment Information (National Sample Survey Round 38, 1983)
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dependent variable | Cereals | Cereals | Cereals | Cereals | Cereals | Cereals | All | All |
| Percentage of households | 5.431*** | 3 944*** | 2.405*** | 1.266*** | 1.380*** | 1.206*** | 1.639*** | 1.186*** |
| without toilet in PSU | (0.128) | (0.271) | (0.258) | (0.240) | (0.242) | (0.235) | (0.275) | (0.256) |
| Log of MPCE | 403.525*** | 475.928*** | 555.460*** | 509.428*** | 521.768*** | 1,046.001*** | 1,005.566*** | |
| (8.083) | (8.107) | (7.193) | (7.682) | (7.493) | (7.531) | (8.007) | ||
| Urban residence | -341.163*** | —271 747*** | -167.560*** | -175.736*** | -149.592*** | -296.680*** | -165.460*** | |
| (17.833) | (17.634) | (15.073) | (15.765) | (14.812) | (18.684) | (16.561) | ||
| Household controls | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||
| State-region fixed effects | X | X | X | X | X | |||
| Demography-specific | X | X | X | |||||
| employment controls | ||||||||
| Household primary | X | X | X | |||||
| occupation controls | ||||||||
| N (PSUs) | 2,991 | 2,991 | 2,991 | 2,991 | 2,991 | 2,991 | 2,991 | 2,991 |
| N (households) | 108,330 | 108,330 | 108,330 | 108,330 | 108,330 | 108,330 | 108,098 | 108,098 |
| R2 | 0.064 | 0.188 | 0.225 | 0.356 | 0.370 | 0.386 | 0.518 | 0.562 |
Notes. Standard errors in parentheses are clustered by PSU (2,991 clusters). PSU stands for ‘primary sampling unit’, which is typically a village or city sub-block. ‘Cereals’ includes rice, wheat, coarse grains, cereal substitutes and the products of these items. The dependent variable is per capita calories consumption of either cereals or all food groups and is adjusted for meals eaten away from home. Household controls include: scheduled tribe, scheduled caste, Muslim, other religion (non-Hindu and non-Muslim), mud flooring, open water source, and dirty cooking fuels. Demography-specific employment controls are the percentage of household members who fall into sex-age-industry (based on principal industry division for individuals 15+ years old) category. Household occupation controls include indicators for 3-digit NCO-1968 codes (665 groups), indicator for agricultural industry, and indicators for crops cultivated. MPCE stands for ‘monthly per capita expenditures’, which is measured in 1983 Rupees. There were 77 NSS state-regions at the time of survey; state-regions are continguous districts grouped by geographical features, population densities, and cropping patterns. Households in top and bottom 1 % of per capita calories distribution in the rural and urban sectors were trimmed before estimation. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10.