Table 1.

The mean dietary intake of energy, total carbohydrate, sugar, and dietary fiber among pregnant women with type 1 diabetes

Study	Term of pregnancy	No of women	Dietary assessment method	Energy intake (kJ)	Total carbohydrate g/day E%	Sugar g/day	Fiber g/day
Ásbjörnsdóttir et al. (2017)	Early	107	Dietary record	‐	205 c	NA	‐	‐
Hill et al. (2012)	Mid	555	FFQ b	6,745	221	55	‐	21
McManus et al. (2013)	Mid	29	24‐hr dietary recall	8,058	251	51	‐	20
Kozlowska et al. (2018)	Mid	26	Dietary record	7,088	215	46	27 d	22
Neoh et al. (2018)	Late	93	Dietary record	7,000	198	50	91e	15
Sum/Total mean	‐	810	‐	7,401 ± 498	218 ± 19	51 ± 3	NA	20 ± 3 f

^aPart of a randomized placebo‐controlled trial. Reference: McCance DR, Holmes VA, Maresh MJA et al. Vitamins C and E for prevention of pre‐eclampsia in women with type 1 diabetes (DAPIT): a randomized placebo‐controlled trial. Lancet. 2010;24:259–266.

^bFood Frequency Questionnaire.

^cMajor source of carbohydrates (e.g., bread, potatoes, rice, pasta, dairy products, fruits, and candy) and estimated amount from minor source of carbohydrate (e.g., vegetables, nuts, almonds, meatballs, and sauces) was set to 25 gram carbohydrate.

^dAdded sugar; ^eNonrecommended source of carbohydrates (e.g., sugar, biscuits, cakes, nonalcoholic beverages).

^fThe average of sugar intake is not calculated due to the small sample size and the heterogeneity in the definition of intake.