Table 5.
Summary table of included articles
| Reference | Study design | Study period | Type of migrant | Sample population*** | Main category | Subcategory | Quality score | Summary |
| Scheutz et al88 | Prevalence (Des-3) |
January–May 1982 | Asylum seekers and refugees | 361 Vietnamese refugees | Disease and injury | Non-communicable disease (oral health) |
Moderate (55.6) |
Dental health of refugees was examined, and the study showed a positive relationship between the average number of tooth decay and missing teeth and increase in age among younger refugees. |
| Levy89 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
July–August 1984 | Asylum seekers and refugees | 297 children (94 Filipino,104 Muruts, 99 Kadazan) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Low (44.4) |
Three groups of children—one refugee group and two indigenous groups—were examined for six types of intestinal parasites. Among the three groups, Filipino refugee children presented significant higher rates of Trichuris trichiura and ascaris lumbricoides compared with both groups. |
| Kassim et al38 | Case series (Des-3) |
1985–1986 | Unclassified migrants* | 86 children (7 migrants,† 34 Malays, 16 Chinese, 3 mixed origin) |
Risk behaviour | Violence and abuse (Neglect) |
Moderate (60.0) |
In total, 86 children were identified as cases suffering from different types of abuse. Among this group were seven irregular migrant children, where they were identified as neglected, due to lacking nutritional and physical needs. |
| Zulkifli et al28 | Analytical cross-sectional (Obs-4) |
N/A† | Unclassified migrants | 1515 people (336 migrants,† 1075 citizens) |
Living conditions Mortality and morbidity |
Service environment (healthcare utilisation) Mortality rates (Under-five mortality) |
Low (33.3) |
A comparison between migrants and locals regarding maternal and child health outcomes were studied. Migrant women had a lower usage of contraceptives and antenatal care, but used the services of traditional birth attendants more compared with local women. In addition, migrant women had statistically significantly higher rates regarding infant mortality compared with locals. |
| Rajeswari et al48 | Prevalence (Des-3) |
N/A† | Foreign workers‡ | 456 children (10 Indonesians, 357 Malays, 78 Orang Asli, 11 Indian) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Low (22.2) |
School children were examined for different types of helminths and protozoa, and the study showed that children from migrant workers had the highest prevalence. |
| Jeyakumar39 | Case series (Des-3) |
10 May 1993–8 July 1993 | Unclassified migrants*, §§ |
27 migrants (23 Bangladeshi, 4 Indonesians) |
Risk behaviour | Poor nutrition (nutrition deficiency) |
Low (40.0) |
Twenty-seven detained irregular migrants were sent to the hospital to treat ankle oedema, where they showed a positive response to thiamine treatment. |
| Jamaiah et al82 | Case series (Des-3) |
1983–1992 | Unclassified migrants* | 134 people (22 Indonesian, 22 Others†, ††† 40 Chinese, 37 Malays, 13 Indians) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Low (40.0) |
A total of 134 malaria cases were admitted to University Hospital Kuala Lumpur between 1983 and 1992, including 22 irregular Indonesian migrants (16.4%) and 22 (16.4%) other foreigners (such as other irregular migrants from Bangladesh, India and Thailand, as well as Vietnamese refugees. In addition, chloroquine-resistance was found in nine irregular Indonesian migrants and six other foreigners. |
| Krahl and Hashim49 | Prevalence (Des-3) |
January 1994–June 1996 | Foreign workers‡‡‡, ¶¶¶ |
39 people (20 Indonesians, 16 Filipinos, 1 Bruneian, 1 Singaporean, 1 Thai) |
Disease and injury | Mental health (psychiatric disorders) |
High (77.8) |
Within a 2-year period, 39 foreigners were admitted to the psychiatric wards of UHKL, including 30 migrant workers that suffered from a psychiatric disorder. Domestic workers represented with 23 cases the largest group among these foreign workers. |
| Zabedah et al40 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
N/A† | Unclassified migrants | 37 people identified; 27 people included (17 Filipinos, 10 locals) |
Risk behaviour | Alcohol and other drugs (Inhalant) |
Low (22.2) |
Among the 37 suspected solvent abusers (glue sniffers) that were admitted to Bukit Padang Psychiatric Hospital, 27 children admitted using these inhalants. Almost two-third of the cases were Filipino immigrants. |
| Dony et al92 | Prevalence (Des-3) |
N/A† | Unclassified migrants | 3908 people (943 foreigners,† 2965 nationals) |
Mortality and morbidity | Morbidity rates (tuberculosis and leprosy) |
Moderate (62.5) |
An epidemiolocal study aimed to present the tuberculosis and leprosy trends in Sabah. Since 1990, at least 24% of the annual tuberculosis cases were among Indonesian and Filipino migrants, where the annual rate differed between 100 and 200 cases per 100 000 population between 1990 and 2000. Furthermore, leprosy rates among migrants differed from 4.39 cases to 6.19 cases per 100 000 population between 1996 and 2001. |
| Chandran et al50 | Case report (Des-4) |
N/A† | Foreign workers | 1 Myanmar | Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
High (83.3) |
A Jabouley procedure was carried out to treat a 30-year-old Myanmar worker that suffered from a filarial infection. After the procedure, the patient was discharged, but did not show for the follow-up. |
| Nissapatorn et al51 | Prevalence (Des-3) |
January 2000–April 2004 | Foreign workers | 1885 patients† | Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Low (50.0) |
Within a 4-year period, 1885 medical records of the University of Malaya Medical Centre were reviewed to identify the prevalence of four common protozoan infections. In total, 28 malaria cases were identified, where 60.7% was among foreigners. The majority of this group consisted of foreign workers. |
| Sobri et al83 | Case series (Des-3) |
January 1995–December 2001 | Unclassified migrants | 42 people (7 Indonesians, 1 Burmese, 1 Siamese (Thai), 1 Bangladeshi, 1 Nepalese, 23 Malays, 6 Chinese, 2 Indians) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (bacteria) |
Low (50.0) |
In total, 42 patients were diagnosed with tuberculosis meningitis at the Kuala Lumpur Hospital during a 7-year period. Eleven (9.5%) out of the 42 tuberculosis meningitis patients were among immigrants. |
| Leong52 | Prevalence (Des-3) |
1 January 1997–31 December 2004 | Foreign workers | 3117 Indonesians | Disease and injury | Various diseases (various diseases) |
Low (44.4) |
During an 8-year period, 3117 female migrant (domestic) workers were screened at a private clinic in Johor Bahru, where 223 (7.2%) of them presented medical problems. Hypertension, pulmonary tuberculosis and hepatitis B were the top three major issues. |
| Sasidharan et al53 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
June 1999–September 2001 | Foreign workers | 697 people (26 Bangladeshi, 276 Malays, 229 Chinese, 166 Indians) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (bacteria) |
High (77.8) |
From 1999 to 2002, a total of 697 patients were examined for Helicobacter pylori infection. Twenty-six Bangladeshi foreign workers were among this group, and the infection was present in six of them. |
| Masitah54 | Case series (Des-3) |
N/A† | Foreign workers | N/A† | Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Low (22.2) |
During a 6-year period, different malaria registries were reviewed to identify the number of cases in Selangor. The number of annual malaria cases decreased from 172 people in 2001 to 90 people in 2006, while the proportion of cases among migrant workers increased from 57% to 75%, respectively. |
| Shailendra and Prepageran55 | Case report (Des-4) |
N/A† | Foreign workers | 1 Myanmar | Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
High (75.0) |
A 38-year-old Myanmar migrant worker presented a case of oropharyngeal rhinosporidiosis. The abnormal growths were removed, and the patient did not show any recurrence of the disease after a 3-month follow-up. |
| Chan et al56 | Analytical cross-sectional (Obs-4) |
N/A† | Foreign workers* | 699 people (336 Indonesians, 45 Bangladeshi, 45 Indians, 26 Nepalese, 22 Myanmar, 17 Pakistani, 3 Africans,† 3 Sri Lankans, 3 Thai, 1 Chinese, 198 Malaysians) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Low (0.0) |
A sample of 699 people were screened for toxoplasmosis, including 501 migrant workers. Among the migrant workers, 171 (34.1%) cases tested positive for the IgG antibodies test and 26 (5.2%) cases tested positive for the IgM antibodies test. The statistical analysis showed that the infection rate—using the IgG test—was significantly higher among local residents compared with the foreign workers. |
| Farhana et al57 | Case series (Des-3) |
1999–2008 | Foreign workers | 34 people (3 Myanmar, 1 Indonesian, 1 Pakistani, 14 Chinese, 9 Malays, 6 Indians) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Low (60.0) |
A total of 34 amoebiasis cases were admitted to University Malaya Medical Centre during a 10-year period, including five foreign workers. |
| Chan et al58 | Analytical cross-sectional (Obs-4) |
N/A† | Foreign workers* | 699 people (336 Indonesians, 45 Bangladeshi, 45 Indians, 26 Nepalese, 22 Myanmar, 17 Pakistani, 3 Africans,† 3 Sri Lankans, 3 Thai, 1 Chinese, 198 Malaysians) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Low (0.0) |
A sample of 699 people were screened for toxoplasmosis, including 501 migrant workers. Among the migrant workers, 171 (34.1%) cases tested positive for the IgG antibodies test and 26 (5.2%) cases tested positive for the IgM antibodies test. The statistical analysis showed that the infection rate—using the IgG test—was significantly higher among local residents compared with the foreign workers. |
| Murty59 | Case report (Des-4) |
N/A† | Foreign workers | 1 Myanmar | Disease and injury | Non-communicable disease (benign) |
High (80.0) |
A 37-year-old foreign worker was found dead, and the postmortem examination showed that the case suffered from a cystic tumour in the heart. |
| Murty et al60 | Case series (Des-3) |
1996–2005 | Foreign workers | 27 people (16 Indonesians, 1 Bangladeshi, 1 Punjabi,† 1 Bajau,† 5 Malays, 2 Indians, 1 Chinese) |
Disease and injury | Injury (physical trauma) |
Low (44.4) |
During a 10-year study period, 27 cases of fatal lightning strikes were identified. The majority of the cases were among foreign workers, where Indonesians had with 16 people (59.3%) the highest prevalence. |
| Mustafa et al61 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
August 2006–March 2009 | Foreign workers | 558 patients (34 foreign labour,† 347 Malays, 97 Indians, 80 Chinese) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (virus) |
Low (44.4) |
A total of 558 suspected dengue cases were identified, including 34 migrant workers. Among the foreign labour group, 20 patients presented acute dengue, 4 patients presented recent dengue and 10 patients tested negative for dengue. |
| Su et al62 | Analytical cross-sectional (Obs-4) |
3 January 2007–24 April 2007 | Foreign workers |
194 people§ (95% Indonesians, 5% Bangladeshi) |
Disease and injury | Injury (physical syndrome) |
Moderate (57.1) |
During a 4-month cross-sectional study, 234 migrant workers were examined for level of occupational vibration exposure and health outcomes. In total, 18% of the migrant workers suffered from hand–arm vibration syndrome (HAVS). In addition, different HAVS-related symptoms were significantly higher among workers with high levels of exposure compared with migrant workers with low levels of exposure. |
| Daher et al84 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
September 2009–April 2010 | Unclassified migrants | 253 Iraqi | Disease and injury | Mental health (quality of life) |
High (75.0) |
Health-related quality of life of 253 Iraqi migrants was examined, showing that their quality of life was moderate and statically significant higher levels were found among men and married people. |
| Ratnasinga et al63 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
January 2010–November 2010 | Foreign workers | 5340 people (1348 Bangladeshi, 843 Myanmar, 743 Nepalese, 217 Indonesians, 2190 Malaysians) |
Disease and injury | Injury (physical trauma) |
Low (11.1) |
A total of 5340 workers in the furniture industry were examined, where 59% of this population was foreign labour. Compared with local workers, migrant workers had less occupational accidents and a more positive work-oriented mentality. |
| Ab Rahman et al64 | Case report (Des-4) |
N/A† | Foreign workers | 1 Nepalese | Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
High (87.5) |
A 24-year-old Nepalese migrant worker presented a long medical history of different symptoms, including fever, abdominal pain and poor appetite. Clinical examination showed that the patient suffered from a visceral leishmaniasis and malaria coinfection, and he was treated with chloroquine and amphotericin B. A follow-up was carried out after 6 months and the man remained well. |
| Taib and Baba65 | Case series (Des-3) |
2006–2009 | Foreign workers | 75 patients (38 foreigners,§ 37 locals) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (bacteria) |
Low (30.0) |
A total of 75 leprosy cases were detected at the Hospital Kuala Lumpur Hansen’s Clinic during a 4-year period. With 38 patients, foreign workers represented more than half of the cases. |
| Osman et al41 | Prevalence (Des-3) |
June 2012–September 2012 | Unclassified migrants | 108 Iraqi | Risk behaviour | Sexual behaviour (HPV knowledge) |
Low (50.0) |
Knowledge and awareness regarding cervical cancer and pap smear tests were assessed among 108 Iraqi migrant women. In general, this population lacks understanding regarding cervical cancer and the importance of pap smear tests. |
| Minhat et al42 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
April 2010–June 2010 | Unclassified migrants | 271 Iranians | Risk behaviour | Sexual behaviour (HPV knowledge) |
Low (25.0) |
The knowledge regarding HPV vaccination of 271 Iranian female migrants was evaluated and showed that the majority of the study population has poor knowledge regarding this matter. Marital status was the only predicative factor that was statistically significant, where married women were 3.6 times more likely to have good HPV knowledge. |
| Mendelsohn et al29 | Qualitative (Qual-2) |
July 2010–September 2010 | Asylum seekers and refugees | 14 Myanmar¶ | Living conditions | Service environment (healthcare utilisation) |
High (90.0) |
Fourteen Myanmar refugees were interviewed to explore the difficulties that this group has in accessing antiretroviral therapy (ART). Barriers to comply to ART include lack of an UNHCR identity card, fear of arrest during travelling to the hospital, corruption, financial issues and receiving small quantities of ART medication per refill. |
| Mendelsohn et al30 | Analytical cross-sectional (Obs-4) |
April 2010–July 2010 | Asylum seekers and refugees | 299 people (146 Myanmar, 5 Others,† 148 Malaysians) |
Living conditions | Service environment (healthcare utilisation) |
High (83.3) |
ART compliance and virological outcomes were compared between HIV-infected refugees and locals, where the study showed that both groups had similar rates of compliance and unsuppressed viral loads. |
| Kwan et al85 | Case series (Des-3) |
2008–2013 | Unclassified migrants | 27 people (3 Indonesians, 2 Indians, 2 Nepalese, 2 Myanmar, 1 Sri Lankan, 17 Malaysians) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (bacteria) |
Low (40.0) |
Between 2008 and 2013, 27 leprosy cases were identified by reviewing the Dermatology Clinic census. Out of the 27 identified leprosy cases, 37% of them were among immigrants. |
| Santos et al66 | Prevalence (Des-3) |
February 2013–June 2013 | Foreign workers |
317 people (110 Sri Lankans, 85 Indonesians, 71 Indians,§ 22 Nepalese, 20 Indians,§ 9 Myanmar) |
Disease and injury | Injury (physical syndrome) |
Moderate (55.6) |
A sample of 317 migrant workers were examined to explore the prevalence of musculoskeletal pain among this group. Almost two-third (203 people) of the surveyed migrant workers suffered from work-related musculoskeletal complaints. Pain in the knee/leg/foot area was the most common, as 85 migrant workers reported this outcome. |
| Razali et al43 | Case series (Des-3) |
2000–2012 | Unclassified migrants | 18 females (2 Indonesians, 1 Myanmar, 6 Malays, 5 Chinese, 3 Indians, 1 Punjabi) |
Risk behaviour | Violence and abuse (murder) |
High (80.0) |
Clinical records of two forensic psychiatric institutions were reviewed during 2000 and 2012. A total of 18 cases that committed maternal filicide were detected, including three immigrant women that suffered from adverse life events. |
| Elmi et al86 | Case control (Obs-3) |
January 2010–April 2014 | Unclassified migrants | 209 cases (49 migrants,† 265 locals) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (bacteria) |
Low (50.0) |
A case control study was conducted to identify risk factors regarding multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) development. The study showed that MDR-TB was more prevalent than non-MDR-TB among foreign patients, and that MDR-TB was significantly higher among migrants compared with locals. |
| Santos et al37 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
March 2013–April 2013 | Foreign workers |
317 people (110 Sri Lankans, 85 Indonesians, 71 Indians,§ 22 Nepalese, 20 Indians,§ 9 Myanmar) |
Living conditions Disease and injury |
Economic and work environment (occupational hazards) Injury (physical syndrome) |
Low (44.4) |
The study assessed overall levels of pain and identified perceived environmental hazards among a group of foreign workers. In total, 204 out of 317 migrant workers suffered from musculoskeletal pain, and noise (37.5%) and dust (37.2%) were perceived as the main environmental hazards among this group. |
| William et al87 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
4 July 2012–3 July 2014 | Unclassified migrants | 176 people (53 Filipinos, 6 Indonesians, 106 Indigenous, 10 Chinese, 1 Indian) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (bacteria and virus) |
High (77.8) |
During a 2-year study, 176 participants that tested positive for pulmonary tuberculosis at the Luyang Clinic in Kota Kinabalu were enrolled in the study. More than one-third of the patients (33.5%) were migrants. In addition, out of the three patients with a HIV coinfection, one was a migrant. |
| Siah et al90 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
N/A† | Asylum seekers and refugees |
89 children (39.3% Myanmar, 21.3% Somali, 22.5% Sudanese, 16.9% Others†) |
Disease and injury | Mental health (Quality of life) |
Low (11.1) |
A total of 89 refugee children were surveyed to investigate factors that influence their quality of life. Experiencing deportation, lower levels of education and unemployment of their fathers were significantly associated with a lower quality of life. |
| Guinto et al27 | Scoping review** | 2000–2014 | Foreign workers | N/A | Institutional inequities | Laws and regulations (universal health coverage (UHC)) |
N/A | The study presented implementation challenges of UHC in Southeast Asian countries. Malaysia implemented some measures regarding healthcare for migrant workers; however, government-run UHC is still lacking. |
| Vijian et al67 | Analytical cross-sectional (Obs-4) |
2010–2015 | Foreign workers | 50 people (8 Bangladeshi, 6 Nepalese, 3 Myanmar, 1 African†, §§§ 1 Pakistani, 1 Vietnamese, 14 Malays, 12 Chinese, 4 Indians) |
Disease and injury | Non-communicable disease (perforation) |
Low (16.7) |
Twenty foreign workers and 30 local patients that suffered from perforated peptic ulcers were compared with each other to assess the difference in characteristics between these two groups. Several characteristics were significantly different, where foreign workers were on average 18 years younger (mean age=30.4), suffered from smaller-sized ulcers, and experienced lower levels of postoperative complications. |
| Azian et al68 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
N/A† | Foreign workers |
2153 samples†† (1422 Bangladeshi, 349 Indians, 201 Nepalese, 78 Indonesians, 58 Vietnamese, 45 Myanmar) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (Parasite) |
Low (11.1) |
A total of 2153 blood samples were taken from migrant workers that were located in seven states of Peninsular Malaysia and were tested for leishmaniasis infection. More than half (55.3%) of the collected blood samples were found positive. |
| Sahimin et al69 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
September 2014–August 2015 | Foreign workers |
388 people (167 Indonesians, 81 Nepalese, 70 Bangladeshi, 47 Indians, 23 Myanmar) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Low (33.3) |
A cross-sectional study was conducted to examine the prevalence of different intestinal parasitic infections among foreign labour. Out of the 388 migrant workers, infection rates were between 52.1% and 84%. Higher infection rates significantly associated with migrants from Nepal and India, recently arrived in the country, and less than 1-year work experience in Malaysia. |
| Noh et al31 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
N/A† | Foreign workers | 600 foreign workers† | Living conditions | Service environment (healthcare utilisation) |
Low (22.2) |
Data of 600 foreign workers were obtained to explore their healthcare utilisation. Most of them use health services occasionally (88.5%) and the majority (61.4%) goes to government hospitals. |
| Kamaludin and How46 | Analytical cross-sectional (Obs-4) |
February 2016–April 2016 | Foreign workers | 120 people† (60 foreign workers, 60 local workers) |
Risk behaviour | Hazard and safety awareness (environmental risk) |
Low (50.0) |
The study compared environmental health awareness between 60 local workers and 60 migrant workers, where the latter group showed significant lower levels of awareness. |
| Min et al70 | Prevalence (Des-3) |
January 2011–December 2013 | Foreign workers | 440 people (46 Indonesians, 37 Bangladeshi, 33 Nepalese, 17 Myanmar, 11 Pakistani, 8 Others,† 226 Malays, 32 Chinese, 20 Others,† 10 Indians) |
Disease and injury | Injury (physical trauma) |
Moderate (62.5) |
Medical records of the Hospital Sultan Ismail in Johor Bahru were reviewed between January 2011 and December 2013 to describe the prevalence of work-related ocular traumas. More than one-third of the ocular injuries were among foreign workers and contributed to two-third of the open eye traumas. |
| Woh et al71 | Prevalence (Des-3) |
N/A† | Foreign workers |
317 people (140 Indians, 80 Nepalese, 36 Indonesians, 29 Bangladeshi, 18 Myanmar, 7 Pakistani, 4 Sri Lankans, 2 Vietnamese, 1 Thai) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (bacteria) |
Low (44.4) |
A cross-sectional study was conducted among 317 migrant food handlers from Ipoh, Kuala Terengganu, and Shah Alam to assess the Salmonella prevalence of this group, resulting in nine (2.8%) people testing positive. Seven out of these nine cases presented multidrug resistance towards trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole (six cases), streptomycin (seven cases), ampicillin (four cases), chloramphenicol (four cases), sulphonamides (six cases) and tetracycline (seven cases). |
| Tanabe et al32 | Mixed-method** | N/A† | Asylum seekers and refugees | Participants per method¶ (422 Myanmar—survey; 66 Myanmar—focus group; 6 people†—interviews; 4 facility assessments) |
Living conditions | Service environment (healthcare utilisation) |
N/A | A multiple-country study was conducted to explore barriers regarding family planning services among refugees, where the main challenges included lack of understanding and misinformation concerning contraceptives, language barriers, financial issues, detention concerns, and distance of service delivery points. |
| Ratnalingam et al72 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
N/A† | Foreign workers | 207 patients† | Disease and injury | Communicable disease (bacteria) |
Low (33.3) |
A total of 207 patients from four different hospitals in Malaysia were enrolled in the study to describe the characteristics and risk factors of microbial keratitis. More than one-fourth of the cases were due to work-related traumas, where 34.2% of these cases were among male migrant workers. |
| Woh et al47 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
N/A† | Foreign workers |
383 swab samples†† (Indians, Nepalese, Indonesians, Bangladeshi, Myanmar, Pakistani, Sri Lankans, Thai, Vietnamese) |
Risk behaviour | Hygiene and sanitation (food preparation) |
Low (22.2) |
A total of 383 hand swabs were obtained from migrant food handlers to investigate the prevalence of aerobic place counts, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli, resulting in 99.5%, 64.4%, and 20.8% testing positive, respectively. In general, levels of the first two exceeded the acceptable standard. Infection rates were significantly higher among food handles from India compared food handlers from Nepal. In addition, significant higher rates were found among cooks, followed by waiters, compared with managers. |
| Noor and Shaker73 | Analytical cross-sectional (Obs-4)‡‡ |
N/A† | Foreign workers | 119 Indonesians | Disease and injury | Mental health (stress) |
High (85.7) |
A sample of 119 migrant workers were examined to explore the relationship between psychological distress and workplace discrimination, and the effect of coping strategy on stress levels. The study showed that workplace discrimination increased levels of stress. In addition, problem-oriented coping strategies were related to lower stress levels, while the emotional and avoidance coping strategy was associated to higher levels of stress. |
| Noordin et al74 | Prevalence (Des-3) |
September 2014–August 2015 | Foreign workers |
484 foreign labour (246 Indonesians, 103 Nepalese, 69 Bangladeshi, 51 Indians, 14 Myanmar, 1 Vietnamese) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Low (33.3) |
Lymphatic filariasis prevalence among foreign labour was determined by screening 484 migrant workers, showing that 6.8% and 2.1% suffered from bancrofitian filariasis and brugian filariasis, respectively. |
| Sahimin et al75 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
September 2014–August 2015 | Foreign workers |
484 people (247 Indonesians, 99 Nepalese, 72 Bangladeshi, 52 Indians, 14 Myanmar) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Low (44.4) |
A total of 484 foreign workers were sampled to describe the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and factors related to higher infection rates. In total, 278 migrant workers (57.4%) tested positive for T. gondii, where significant higher levels of infection were associated with Nepalese origin, newly arrived in Malaysia, and working in manufacturing. |
| Labao et al76 | Prevalence (Des-3) |
N/A† | Foreign workers | 60 Filipinos | Disease and injury | Injury (physical syndrome) |
Moderate (55.6) |
A cross-sectional study was conducted to investigate which body regions were presenting the most work-related musculoskeletal complaints among migrant workers. The major affected areas included the shoulder (60%), lower back (60%), upper back (48.3%) and neck (45%) regions. |
| Shaw et al91 | Randomised controlled trial (Exp-2) |
N/A† | Asylum seekers and refugees | 39 Afghans | Disease and injury | Mental health (stress) |
Low (30.8) |
In order to assess the impact of cognitive behavioural therapy on emotional distress, an 8-week intervention was conducted among 39 female refugees. As a result, the intervention significantly lowered levels of posttraumatic stress, anxiety. emotional distress and depression. |
| Abdul Rahman et al44 | Case control (Obs-3) |
N/A† | Unclassified migrants§§ |
61 people (52 Myanmar, 9 Others†) |
Risk behaviour | Poor nutrition (nutrition deficiency) |
Moderate (60.0) |
A case control study was conducted to determine the factors that were related to bilateral leg swelling among detained irregular migrants. Out of the 226 inmates, 21 Myanmar were identified as cases and were compared with 41 controls from Myanmar, Indonesia, Nepal and Vietnam. The study showed that the illness was caused due to a thiamine deficiency, as the patients lacked the consumption of meat. Intravenous and oral thiamine treatment was provided, and the patients responded well to it. |
| Sahimin et al77 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
September 2014–August 2015 | Foreign workers |
388 people (167 Indonesians, 81 Nepalese, 70 Bangladeshi, 47 Indians, 23 Myanmar) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Low (44.4) |
A sample of 388 foreign workers was examined to describe the prevalence of Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium parvum, showing that 42 people (10.8%) and 12 people (3.1%) tested positive, respectively. Indonesian nationality, work in the manufacturing and service sector, and newly arrived in Malaysia were significantly associated with G. duodenalis, while C. parvum was only significantly associated with employment in the food industry. |
| Nwabichie et al45 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
N/A† | Unclassified migrants |
320 people† (50% Nigerians, 15% Ghanaians, 35% Others (from Sudan, Tanzania, Kenya and South Africa)) |
Risk behaviour | Sexual behaviour (HPV knowledge) |
High (77.8) |
In total, 320 African female migrants were surveyed to investigate risk factors that are related to higher HPV risk behaviour. Only 27.2% of the sample obtained cervical cancer screening, where higher levels of screening were significantly associated with having knowledge regarding cervical cancer, being married, having a standard healthcare provider, and no perceived barriers when obtaining the check-up. |
| Jeffree et al78 | Case control (Obs-3) |
N/A† | Foreign workers | 470 people† | Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Moderate (60.0) |
A case-control study was conducted to determine the risk factors related to a malaria outbreak, where rubber tappers—including one migrant worker—presented a higher infection rate. |
| Zerguine et al79 | Analytical cross-sectional (Obs-4) |
June 2016–September 2016 | Foreign workers |
323 people (155 Bangladeshi, 126 Indonesians, 25 Pakistani, 11 Nepalese, 6 Chinese) |
Disease and injury | Injury (physical trauma) |
Moderate (57.1) |
A total of 323 migrant workers were sampled to investigate the prevalence and causes of workplace injuries, and examine the relationship between these traumas and safety commitment variables. The study showed that 22.6% of the foreign workers suffered from a work-related injury, mostly due to falls from heights (31.5%), and that there was a significant association between various injuries and different safety commitment-related variables, such as safe equipment and safety training. |
| Ya’acob et al80 | Randomised controlled trial (Exp-2) |
N/A† | Foreign workers | 54 Indonesians | Disease and injury | Injury (Physical syndrome) |
Low (38.5) |
A workplace intervention was conducted to assess the effect of Kiken Yochi training on musculoskeletal symptoms among foreign workers, where the study showed that the intervention significant decreased musculoskeletal symptoms in feet and ankle areas compared with the control group. |
| Chuah et al¶ | Qualitative (Qual-2) |
July 2016–November 2017 | Asylum seekers and refugees | 20 stakeholders¶¶ | Living conditions | Service environment (healthcare utilisation) |
High (80.0) |
Twenty stakeholders were interviewed to explore the barriers that refugees and asylum seekers encounter during healthcare utilisation, showing that cultural competency, insufficient health literacy, healthcare expenses, and not being aware of their rights were the main challenges. |
| Loganathan et al33 | Qualitative (Qual-2) |
July 2018–September 2018 | Foreign workers | 18 stakeholders¶¶ | Living conditions | Service environment (healthcare utilisation) |
High (80.0) |
A qualitative study with 18 stakeholders demonstrated that migrant workers face several complications with respect to utilising healthcare, including financial issues, discrimination, lack of valid passports and work permits, cultural competency, and physical barriers. |
| Rahman et al34 | Prevalence (Des-3) |
N/A† | Foreign workers | 314 Bangladeshi | Living conditions Disease and injury |
Service environment (healthcare utilisation) Various diseases (various diseases) |
Low (33.3) |
A group of 314 migrant workers were sampled to present the distribution of diseases and healthcare utilisation pattern. Fever and sprains were the most reported diseases among the group that suffered from an illness in the last 2 weeks, while fever and gastrointestinal diseases were the most prevalent among the group that suffered from an illness in the last month. In addition, the majority (approx. 60%) visited hospitals to seek treatment. |
| Siah et al36 | Qualitative (Qual-3) |
N/A† | Asylum seekers and refugees | 8 stakeholders (5 refugees,† 3 locals) |
Living conditions | Social environment (prejudice) |
Low (50.0) |
Eight people stakeholders were interviewed to explore the forms of discrimination that refugee children experience. The study shows that refugee children suffer from denied access to healthcare, not receiving proper education, and being judged by their social environment. |
| Sahimin et al81 | Prevalence (Des-2) |
September 2014 and August 2015 | Foreign workers |
610 people (246 Indonesians, 99 Nepalese, 72 Bangladeshi, 52 Indians, 14 Myanmar) |
Disease and injury | Communicable disease (parasite) |
Low (33.3) |
Four different diagnostic tests were applied to identify Strongyloides stercoralis among migrant workers, where prevalence rates differed between 0.8% and 35.8% |
| Chuah et al35 | Qualitative (Qual-2) |
July 2016–January 2018 | Asylum seekers and refugees | 20 stakeholders¶¶ | Living conditions | Service environment (healthcare utilisation) |
High (80.0) |
Twenty stakeholders were interviewed to identify the challenges with respect to accessing healthcare among refugees, showing that out of pocket healthcare spending, language and cultural competency barriers, and access to medication are the top healthcare challenges. |
*Includes irregular migrants.
†Data to present detailed information are lacking.
‡Includes children of migrant workers, which is according to the IOM (2011) definition still classified as migrant workers.
§Ambigious reporting of the data.
¶Includes a multiple-country study, and, therefore, subjects that were included in countries other than Malaysia are not reported in this table.
**Level of evidence and quality appraisal are not available for this study design.
††Number of samples might not be similar to the number of study participants.
‡‡Despite of lacking a comparison group, this study was identified as an analytical cross-sectional study due to the aim—testing two hypotheses—and comprehensive statistical analysis.
§§Includes detained migrants.
¶¶Representing the population of interest (as shown in the ‘type of migrant’ category).
***Sample population in italic represents the migrant population.
†††Includes refugees, international students, expats and unclassified migrants.
‡‡‡Includes three expats.
§§§Includes an international student.
¶¶¶Includes six transnational marriage migrants.
HPV, human papilloma virus; N/A, data not available; UNHCR, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.