Table 1.

The identified studies and case reports in diagnosing PSLE

Author, year	No. of patients	Age	Center	Key findings
Sheth, 1994 [17]	1 (case report)	2 years old	West Virginia University Health Science Center, USA	HV recordings provide the pediatrician with an opportunity to visually examine a child’s spells, often avoiding unnecessary investigations.
Samuel and Duncan, 1994 [18]	22 enrolled (12 F, 10 M), only 17 filmed (short report)	Range age: 18–55 years	National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London and National Society for Epilepsy, Chalfont, UK	The videotapes assisted the diagnosis of non-epileptic attacks in 41%, and of epileptic attacks in 36%. HV is a useful and inexpensive tool to provide accurate seizure descriptions
Johansen, 1999 [19]	173 enrolled, only 103 answered (survey)	Children	Department of Paediatrics, The National Centre for Epilepsy, Norway	Installation of a video-TV observation system in a bedroom at home decreased the stress level in many families and improved their quality of life.
Badhwar, 2002 [20]	1 (case report)	24 years old	Montreal Neurological Hospital and Institute, Canada	For patients with infrequent seizures, a HV can be particularly helpful.
Stephenson, 2003 [21]	5 (case series)	Range age: 15 months to 8 years (mean 32 months old)	Fraser of Allander Neurosciences Unit, Glasgow, UK; University of Minnesota Hospitals, Minneapolis, USA; Neurology Department, Paediatric Hospital no. 1, Kyiv, Ukraine	HV recording utility in demonstrating the existence of anoxic-epileptic seizures.
Chen, 2008 [22]	43 (27 with ES and 16 with PNEE)	Patients’ ages (range/mean): 17–47/30.5 years for ES and 18–65/38.8 years for PNEE	Stanford Epilepsy Monitoring Unit, USA	Video recordings alone help to a correct diagnosis of ES with a sensitivity of 93% and specificity of 94% (similar for EEG data alone). Simultaneous review of both techniques is not necessary for a correct characterization. HVs may be useful in screening a subset of patients with neurobehavioral events of unclear etiology, particularly if events are too infrequent to be captured during inpatient video-EEG monitoring.
Beniczky, 2012 [23]	41 seizures from 30 patients (19 F)	Range age: 2–62 (mean 23 years)	Danish Epilepsy Centre, Denmark	The overall accuracy for interpreting the video recordings was significantly higher than the accuracy based on descriptions. 97% of clinical episodes in which a consensus conclusion was achieved based on HVs proved to be concordant with reference standard (video-EEG).
Rocha and Pereira, 2013 [24]	1 (case report)	28 years	Neurology Department – Hospital de Braga, SeteFontes - S. Victor, Portugal	Utility of HV in a patient with an eight years history of non-convulsive seizures that was only diagnosed with epilepsy after self-recording a seizure on his phone camera.
Goodwin, 2014 [25]	130 (93 adults, 37 children)	13 days to 59 years	Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, UK	HV facilities aided interpretation of ambulatory EEG recordings in approximately one third of patients.
Dash, 2016 [11]	624 events from 312 patients	Mean age: 26.76 ± 7.5 years	All India Institute of Medical Sciences (tertiary care), New Delhi, India	Home videos are more reliable in picking up semiological signs and classifying epilepsy type than history provided by caregivers of PWEs. Home videos are a complementary tool in a developing country like India.
Ojeda’ J., 2016 [13]	50 events from 22 patients (13 F)	Mean age: 35 ±  4 y	Department of Adult Neurology, Hospital Universitario Infanta Sofia, Madrid, Spain	HVs may be of diagnostic value in epilepsy management. Training in performing good-quality videos is necessary. Webcam long term recordings should be recommended as the best recording option.
Erba, 2016 [26]	23 events from 21 patients	Adults	Department of Neurology, SEC, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, U.S.A.	In about one-third of cases (7 out of 23, 30.4%), a confident diagnosis of PNES/ES can be established on clinical grounds based on video data alone.
Wasserman, 2017 [27]	10 videos, 5 of PNES, 5 of ES (survey)	46 participants (20 neurologists, 26 nonneurologists)	Rambam Health Care Center, Haifa, Israel	Neurologists ability to recognize seizure semiology is higher (87,5%) than internal medicine (54%) and ER physicians (44%). There is need for video taking of episodes and education plan to first responders.
Ramanujam, 2018 [28]	269 patients	Range age: 10–50 years	All India Institute of Medical Sciences (tertiary care), New Delhi, India	HV of good quality can complement VEEG in diagnosing PNES, with high sensitivity (95,4%), specificity (97,5%), PPV (92,6%) and NPV (98,5%). The accuracy of diagnosing ES was calculated to be 72.49%.
Huang, 2019 [12]	12 paroxysmal events from pediatric population (survey)	452 medical participants, 301 questionnaires analyzed	Chinese People’s Liberation Army General Hospital, Beijing, China	Home videos made on mobile phones can facilitate the diagnosis of paroxysmal events in infants and thereby save costs. HV increased the mean correct diagnosis percentage by 3.9% for epileptic events and 11.5% for non-epileptic events. The best choice for infants with paroxysmal events on their initial visit is to record their events first and then show the video to a neurologist with longer working years through online consultation.
Yeh, 2019 [29]	29 patients	Range age: infant postmenstrual age of 49 to 60 weeks	Lin-Kao Chang Gung Memorial Hospital-Children’s Hospital, Taiwan	Demonstrate the effectiveness of an instructional leaflet in guiding parental home recording of infants’ GMs (General Movements) and the feasibility of HV recording of GMs by parents for GMA (General Movement Assessment) by a clinical certified physical therapist.
Tatum, 2020 [10]	44 patients (31 F) (prospective multicentric masked clinical trial)	Mean age: 45.1 [20–82] years	8 academic epilepsy centers (all certified as level IV) in USA	Psychogenic attacks on HV were diagnosed by 100% of the reviewing physicians (1/4 of HVs). When histories and physical examination results were combined with smartphone videos, correct diagnoses rose from 78.6% to 95.2% and the odds of receiving a correct diagnosis were 5.45 times greater using smartphone video alongside patient history and physical examination results than with history and physical examination alone.

ES Epileptic seizures; PNEE paroxysmal nonepileptic events