Table 1.
Illustrative schematic demonstrating main markets suitable for Li–S technology now and in the future with the required values for specific energy, C rate, cycle life, environment, and remaining challenges
| Future commercial vehicles[ 21 ] | Aerospace | Maritime | Aviation | Heavy EVs | Future urban air transport |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Examples | HAPS | AUVs2 | Electric aircrafts (fixed wing) drones | eBuses, eTrucks 4 | eVTOL |
| Required E grav | >400 Wh kg−1 | >400 Wh kg−1 | >300 Wh kg−1 | >400 Wh kg−1 | >400 Wh kg−1 |
| Required continuous discharge rate | < C/5 | ≈C/10–1 °C | Peak discharge at ≈1–2 °C | Peak discharge at ≈1–2 °C | 4–5 °C for take‐off/landing, ≈1–2 °C during cruise |
| Cycle life | 60–200 cycles | 60–200 cycles | 200–500 cycles | 1000 cycles | 500 cycles |
| Environmental requirements |
10–40 °C Low pressure (50 mbar) |
Low temperature (4 °C) High pressure (45 MPa) |
−10–60 °C | −10–60 °C | −10–60 °C |
| Main remaining challenges | ‐ | ‐ |
Cycle life (>500) Safety regulations |
Cycle life (>1000) Safety regulations |
Fast discharge (4–5 °C) while retaining 400 Wh kg−1 Fast charge (1–2 °C) Cycle life (>500) Safety regulations. Enhanced thermal management. |