Nociceptive pain drivers |
Pain and impact of pain on physical function |
Brief Pain Inventory (BPI) is designed to assess pain severity (at its worst, least and average) and the extent to which pain interferes in the daily life in relation to 7 domains of functioning (general activity, mood, walking ability, normal work, relations, sleep and enjoyment of life) on a scale of 0 to 10 [23]. |
Nervous system dysfunction (NSD) drivers |
Radicular signs/symptoms, hyperalgesia/allodynia, evidence of central sensitization |
The PainDetect Questionnaire [24] is a reliable screening tool to predict the likelihood of a neuropathic pain component. The total score indicates if the pain is less likely to be neuropathic (i.e., 0–12 nociceptive pain; 13–18 mixed pain; 19–38 most likely neuropathic pain) |
The Central sensitization Inventory (CSI) consists of a self-reported tool to assess symptoms of central sensitization (CS) [25, 26]. It contains two sections, part A and B. Part A contains 25 items with 5-point Likert scale with a range for the total score from 0 to 100 and is intended to give an overview of the symptoms that are common in CS. Part B was not used as an outcome measure since it only identifies if the patient has been diagnosed with specific disorders associated with CS. |
Cognitive-emotional drivers |
False beliefs, fear of pain/movement, self-efficacy, mood |
The STarT Back Tool (SBT) is a screening questionnaire consisting of 9 items based on psychosocial factors used to categorize patients with LBP based on risk (low, medium, or high) for poor disability outcomes [27]. Overall scores (ranging from 0 to 9) are determined by summing all responses, and the SBT psychosocial subscale (items 5–9; ranging from 0 to 5) are determined by summing all items related to psychosocial factors of prolonged disability such as catastrophizing and pain-related fear and anxiety [27]. |
Contextual drivers |
Job flexibility, absenteeism, work capacity |
The Örebro Musculoskeletal Pain Screening Questionnaire Short-form (OMPSQ-SF) is a 10-item screening questionnaire used to determine the risk of long-term absenteeism from work due to LBP based on occupational and social factors [28]. |
Other outcomes |
Sleep disturbances |
“Sleep disturbances” were deemed “present” if the patient answered “often or always” to item 1 of the CSI (“I feel tired and unrefreshed when I wake from sleeping”) and/or score ≥4 on item 13 of the BPI (“during the past 24 hours, pain has interfered with your sleep”). |
Mood, depressive symptoms |
“Depressive symptoms” were deemed “present” if the patient answered “sometimes, often or always” to item 16 of the CSI (“I feel sad or depressed”) and/or score >5 on item 6 of the OMSPQ-SF (“how much have been bothered by feeling depressed in the past week?”) |