Table 1.

Gut mycobiome or fungal-derived products in chronic liver diseases

Disease	Species	Mycobiome alterations in diseased individuals	References
Alcoholic hepatitis	Human	Decreased fungal diversity Increased Candida (genus) and C. albicans Decreased Penicillium (genus) Decreased Saccharomyces (genus) Increased serum ASCA Increased fecal ECE1 gene	[43, 44, 81]
Ethanol-induced liver disease	Mouse	Increased total number of fecal fungi Increased plasma 1,3-β-D-glucan Disease exacerbation by candidalysin	[44]
Obesity	Human	Decreased fungal diversity (family level) Decreased Zygomycota (phylum), Decreased Agaricomycetes (class) and Mucor (genus) Increased Tremellomycetes (class)	[45]
PSC	Human	Increased fungal diversity in PSC (compared with IBD) Decreased Saccharomycetales (order), Saccharomycetes (class), Saccharomycetaceae (family), and S. cerevisiae (species)	[92]
Cirrhosis	Human	Decreased fungal diversity in cirrhosis Increased Candida in inpatients Decreased Basidiomycota/Ascomycota in inpatients vs. outpatients and controls	[46]

C. albicans, Candida albicans, ASCA, anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibodies, ECE1, extent of cell elongation 1, PSC, primary sclerosing cholangitis, IBD, inflammatory bowel disease, S. cerevisiae, Saccharomyces cerevisiae