Table 1.
Key scaffold types and examples of their use in skeletal muscle constructs
| Author | Scaffold material | Cell type | In vivo/in vitro | Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Decellularised tissue | ||||
| Quarta et al. [110] | Murine tibialis anterior (TA) muscle | Satellite cells, endothelial cells, hematopoietic cells, fibroblasts and fibro-adipogenic progenitors | In vivo | Non-myoblastic cell types support satellite cell survival. Perfusion of tissue constructs in vitro improves satellite cell survival. Tissue constructs combined with exercise increased in vivo muscle mass, force generation and murine gait. |
| Alvarez Fallas et al. [25] | Murine diaphragm muscle | N/A | In vivo | Decellularised scaffold promoted greater neovascularisation and provoked a more limited foreign body reaction than unmodified synthetic PTFE scaffold. |
| Shapiro et al. [24] | Rabbit skeletal muscle conjugated with IGF-1 | Murine C2C12 | In vitro | IGF-1 increased C2C12 infiltration into decellularized scaffolds and supported C2C12 proliferation on scaffold. |
| Hydrogel | ||||
| Kim et al. [117] | Fibrinogen, gelatin, hyaluronic acid and glycerol cellularised hydrogel. Glycerol hydrogel sacrificial microchannels. Poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) supporting pillar | Human muscle progenitor cell isolate | In vivo | Tissue construct treated VML rats recovered to >80% muscle force generation by week 8. 3D printed constructs regenerated more muscle mass, greater force generation and superior muscle histology than non-printed constructs |
| Prüller et al. [80] | Collagen I, Fibrin and PEG-Fibrinogen hydrogels |
Murine C2C12 myoblasts Immortalised human myoblasts Murine satellite cells |
In vitro | Satellite cells transplanted with their cellular niche had superior proliferation and terminal differentiation than those expanded in vitro. Myogenic differentiation occurred on all scaffolds but cell behaviour differed by scaffold material |
| Han et al. [81] | Poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogel embedded with Wnt7a |
Murine satellite cells in vivo Murine C2C12 myoblasts in vitro |
In vivo | Wnt7a promotes satellite cell migration into the scaffold and muscle fibre hypertrophy |
| Nanofiber | ||||
| Bloise et al. [82] | Electrospun poly(butylene 1,4-cyclohexandicarboxylate-co-triethylene cyclohexanedicarboxylate) (P(BCE-co-TECE)) | Murine C2C12 myoblasts | In vivo | Addition of TECE improved C2C12 proliferation in vitro. The majority of cells populating the scaffold in vivo were inflammatory cell types. |
| Ribeiro et al. [83] | Electrospun poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) | Murine C2C12 myoblasts | In vitro | PVDF nanofibers demonstrated piezoelectric properties that promoted fusion and maturation of myoblasts and varied with polarity |
| Zahari et al. [130] | Electrospun poly(methyl methacrylate), coated with collagen or laminin | Mixed human fibroblasts and myoblasts | In vitro | Genipin increases nanofiber adsorption of collagen and laminin. Laminin coated scaffolds preferentially support myoblast proliferation and migration. |
| Electroconductive | ||||
| Du et al. [43] | Poly (citric acid-octanediol-polyethylene glycol)(PCE)-graphene (PCEG) nanocomposite | Murine C2C12 myoblasts | In vivo | Addition of reduced graphene oxide (RGO) improved scaffold mechanical properties and electrical conductivity. Addition of RGO increased scaffold myofiber and capillary density in vivo |
| Zhang et al. [84] | SF/PASA: Silk fibroin with poly(aniline‐co‐N‐(4‐sulfophenyl) aniline) | Murine L929 fibroblast and C2C12 myoblasts | In vitro | Characterisation of scaffold electroconductivity and biodegradability. Increasing PASA content enhanced myogenic differentiation of C2C12 myoblasts |
| Ostrovidov et al. [69] | Gelatin-polyaniline (PANI) electrospun nanofibers | Murine C2C12 myoblastis | In vitro |
The addition of PANI increased nanofiber electroconductivity by 104 S/cm. Electrical stimulation of conductive nanofibers enhanced myoblast functional maturation |