Table 2.

Main factors influencing intestinal barrier function.

Impairing the Intestinal Barrier (Increased Permeability)
NSAID (human data) [65].
Hyperglycemia (mice data) [85]
Gliadin (mice data), increases intestinal permeability and exacerbates NSAID-induced small-intestinal damage. (but did not increase the mRNA expression levels of IL-1β and TNF-α and did not induce visible small-intestinal damage when given alone) [86].
Acute stress (mice data) [87].
NAFLD and NASH (human data) have increased endotoxin levels [88].
High Fructose diet (Monkey data), with notably high increase in serological LBP-1 [89]. Can be prevented by antibiotics [90].
High fat diet (mice data) increase gut permeability and LPS levels. Can be reversed by antibiotic treatment [91].
High dose (cancerology) MTX (rat [92] and human [93] data).
Vitamin D deficiency (mice data—deficient mice had 50× higher bacterial infiltration in colon tissue) [94].
Acute psychological stress and corticotropin (human [95]).
Improving Function (Normal Permeability)
High dose of specific probiotics (mice data) [96].
Anti-TNF-a medication (human data) [97].
Divertin (drug which blocks MLCK1 recruitment); mice data; is more effective than TNFi in colitis models [98].
Omega-3 derived resolvin (mice) [99].
Butyrate (mice data) [68,100].
Cannabinoid CB1 receptor agonist (mice data) [68,101].
Larazotide acetate (Zonulin receptor antagonist) (mice data) [68].
Dietary fibers in RA patients reduced serum zonulin and calprotectin (human data) [102]