Table 4.
LED effects on the photosynthetic pigments of plants, chlorophyll (chl), and carotenoids. Blue light (BL), red light (RL), green light (GL), yellow light (YL), white light (WL), far-red light (FRL), fluorescent light (FL), white fluorescent light (WFL), blue fluorescent light (BFL), red fluorescent light (RFL), ultraviolet A radiation (UV-A), ultraviolet B radiation (UV-B), ultraviolet C radiation (UV-C).
| Plant Species | LED (Wavelength, Intensity), Photoperiod, and Experimental Parameters | Type of Application | Effect | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chinese cabbage seeds (Brassica campestris L. Teaiqing) | YL (590 nm, 150 µmol m−2·s−1), GL (520 nm, 150 µmol m−2·s−1), RL (658 nm, 150 µmol m−2·s−1), BL (460 nm, 150 µmol m−2·s−1), RL + BL (6:1 ratio); 12-h photoperiod | Growth | All LEDs except RL + BL led to a decrease in total chl and carotenoids | [142] |
| Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. ‘Grizzly’ | WL (380–760 nm, 300 µmol m−2·s−1), RL (650–665 nm, 300 µmol m−2·s−1), BL (460–475 nm, 300 µmol m−2·s−1) orRL + BL (70%:30%), 14-h photoperiod | Growth | RL + BL > RL > BL increased the total chl; RL+BL increased the total carotenoids. All LEDs improved the photosynthetic rate | [96] |
| Grape (Vitis vinifera L. × V. labrusca L cv. Summer Black) | RL (660nm, 100 µmol m−2·s−1), BL (460nm, 100 µmol m−2·s−1), RL + BL (660 + 630 + 460 nm) | Growth | BL increased the photosynthetic rate | [130] |
| Satsuma mandarin (Citrus unshiu Marc.) | BL (470 nm, 50 µmol m−2·s−1), RL (660 nm) 50 µmol m−2·s−1); continuous irradiation for 6 days at 20°C | Postharvest | BL increased the expression of carotenoid biosynthetic genes and carotenoids content | [135] |
| Pak choi (Brassica rapa ssp. chinensis cv. Black Behi) | BL (453nm, 80 µmol m−2·s−1), RL (633nm, 80 µmol m−2·s−1), WL (404–789nm, 80 µmol m−2·s−1); 12-h photoperiod | Growth | WL > RL > BL increased the carotenoid and chlorophyll contents | [140] |
| Sweet oranges (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) | RL (660 nm, 150 µmol m−2·s−1), BL (470 nm, 200 µmol m−2·s−1), WL (100 µmol m−2·s−1), UVA (315–400 nm, 100 µmol m−2·s−1), UVB (270–315 nm, 100 µmol m−2·s−1), UVC (100–280 nm, 100 µmol m−2·s−1); continuous irradiation for 6 days | Postharvest | Dark > RL increased the carotenoid content | [154] |
| Mustard (Brassica juncea L., ‘Red Lion’), beet (Beta vulgaris L., ‘Bulls Blood’), and parsley (Petroselinum crispum Mill., ‘Plain Leaved or French) | Different combinations of BL (447 nm, 300 µmol m−2·s−1) RL (638nm, 300 µmol m−2·s−1), FRL (731 nm, 300 µmol m−2·s−1); 16-h photoperiod | Growth | BL led to the accumulation of chlorophylls, carotenoids, carotenes, lutein, violaxanthin, and zeathin | [109] |
| Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica) | BL (467 nm, 21 µmol m−2·s−1), GL (522 nm, 24 µmol m−2·s−1), YL (587 nm, 27 µmol m−2·s−1), RL (625 nm, 66 µmol m−2·s−1), WL (3000 K color temperature, 40 µmol m2·s−1); continuous irradiation at 4 °C | Postharvest | GL increased the chlorophyll content; no effect on carotenoids elicited by all LEDs | [56] |
| Green Oak Leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. crispa) | WFL (400–700 nm, 133 µmol m−2·s−1), BL (460 nm, 133 µmol m−2·s−1), RL (630 nm, 133 µmol m−2·s−1), FBL (WFL + BL), FRL (WFL + RL); 14-h photoperiod | Growth | FLR > FLB > RB increased total chlorophyll content and total carotenoids | [147] |
| Green Oak Leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. crispa) | WFL + FRL (850 nm, 135 µmol m−2·s−1), WFL + RL (660 nm, 135 µmol m−2·s−1), WFL + YL (596 nm, 135 µmol m−2·s−1), WFL + GL (522 nm, 135 µmol m−2·s−1), WFL + BL (450 nm, 135 µmol m−2·s−1) | Growth | WFL + RL and WFL + BL increased the total chlorophyll and carotenoid content | [148] |
| Baikal skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) | RL (660 nm, 50 µmol m−2·s−1), BL (470 nm, 50 µmol m−2·s−1), WL (380 nm, 50 µmol m−2·s−1); 16-h photoperiod | Growth | BL > RL > WL increased the expression of carotenoids photosynthetic genes; BL increased the zeaxanthin, β-carotene, and 9-cis-β-carotene content | [138] |
| Green Chili (Capsicum annuum L.) | RL (660 nm, 50 µmol m−2·s−1), BL (470 nm, 50 µmol m−2·s−1), continuous irradiation for 3 days | Postharvest | RL induced the expression of lycopene-β-cyclase (Lcyb), β-carotene hydroxylase (CrtZ), and capsanthin/capsolubin synthase (Ccs); BL induced the expression of PS; RL > BL increased the carotene, free-capsanthin, and total carotenoid contents | [141] |