Table 4.
Energy requirements, expenditure, intake and macronutrients at baseline and during the intervention.
| NORM (n = 15) |
LCHF (n = 14) |
NORM-EX (n = 14) |
LCHF-EX (n = 14) |
NORM vs. LCHF | NORM vs. NORM-EX | LCHF vs. LCHF-EX | NROM-EX vs. LCHF-EX | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nutrition | Between Group Differences at Baseline vs. Post Intervention (p-Values) ^ |
|||||||
| Energy | ||||||||
| Requirement (BMR*PAL) | 2437 ± 171 | 2440 ± 192 | 2430 ± 188 | 2337 ± 153 | 0.963 | 0.926 | 0.152 | 0.199 |
| Intake (kcal) pre | 2486 ± 173 | 2489 ± 195 | 2488 ± 183 | 2400 ± 150 | 0.969 | 0.974 | 0.197 | 0.177 |
| Intake (kcal) post | 1544 ± 124 | 1539 ± 212 | 1601 ± 244 | 1541 ± 126 | 0.927 | 0.405 | 0.892 | 0.470 |
| Within-group change (p-value) | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
| Energy availability * | 1544 ± 124 | 1539 ± 212 | 1401 ± 237 | 1334 ± 89 | 0.942 | 0.041 | 0.006 | 0.413 |
| Macronutrients | ||||||||
| Carbohydrate (E%) pre | 48.7 ± 3.1 | 47.7 ± 3.3 | 50.2 ± 3.3 | 48.1 ± 2.3 | 0.425 | 0.205 | 0.695 | 0.067 |
| Carbohydrate (E%) week 1-10 | 48.4 ± 2.8 | 14.0 ± 2.9 | 50.0 ± 3.0 | 15.0 ± 1.2 | <0.0001 | 0.929 | 0.341 | <0.0001 |
| Within-group change (p-value) | 0.809 | <0.001 | 0.978 | <0.001 | ||||
| Protein (E%) pre | 14.9 ± 1.5 | 14.8 ± 1.1 | 15.0 ± 1.0 | 15.2 ± 2.2 | 0.845 | 0.929 | 0.547 | 0.709 |
| Protein (E%) week 1-10 | 20.2 ± 1.9 | 24.2 ± 1.4 | 19.2 ± 1.8 | 24.0 ± 0.9 | <0.0001 | 0.174 | 0.656 | <0.0001 |
| Within-group change (p-value) | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
| Fat (E%) pre | 36.5 ± 3.2 | 37.5 ± 3.2 | 34.8 ± 3.1 | 36.6 ± 3.2 | 0.385 | 0.164 | 0.476 | 0.133 |
| Fat (E%) week 1–10 | 31.4 ± 2.7 | 61.9 ± 3.9 | 30.8 ± 3.4 | 61.0 ± 1.2 | <0.0001 | 0.641 | 0.497 | <0.0001 |
| Within-group change (p-value) | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.020 | <0.001 | ||||
| Saturated fat (E%) pre | 9.9 ± 2.6 | 11.0 ± 2.2 | 10.1 ± 3.1 | 11.9 ± 3.5 | 0.249 | 0.809 | 0.412 | 0.168 |
| Saturated fat (E%) week 1–10 | 7.5 ± 1.7 | 13.8 ± 3.5 | 7.6 ± 1.7 | 12.8 ± 2.8 | <0.0001 | 0.826 | 0.436 | <0.0001 |
| Within-group change (p-value) | 0.005 | 0.010 | 0.014 | 0.562 | ||||
Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Linear mixed models, with pairwise comparisons were used to evaluate within- and between-group differences. Significant values are presented with bold numbers. ^ Differences between groups at post-measurements are adjusted for baseline measurements. NORM: normal diet, LCHF: low-carbohydrate high-fat diet, NORM-EX: normal diet combined with exercise, LCHF-EX: low-carbohydrate high-fat diet combined with exercise. * Energy expenditure during bicycle sessions has been subtracted and is presented in Table 5.