Table 4.
Studies reporting protective potential of antioxidants against organophosphate-induced immunotoxicity.
| Organophosphate (dose; duration) | Immunotoxic impacts | Mitigation of immunotoxicity by antioxidant(s) (dose; duration) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Malathion (20 μM & 100 μM; 24 h) | Triggered apoptosis in cultured peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) | N-acetyl cysteine (20 μM; 24 h) and curcumin (25 μM; 24 h) prevented malathion-mediated apoptosis in PBMC. | Ahmed et al. (2009) |
| Malathion (10 mg/kg; 60 days) | Decreased total immunoglobulins and circulatory immune complexes in chick | Vitamin E (150 IU/kg; 60 days) and selenium (0.1 mg/kg; 60 days) partially counteracted this effect. | Sodhi et al. (2006) |
| Fenitrothion (Lymphocytes incubated with 100 μL of 10−4M Fenitrothion; 48 h) | Reduced proliferation of cultured Splenic Lymphocytes | Walnut Polyphenol (0.5–10 μg/mL; 48 h) increased proliferation of Fenitrothion exposed splenic T lymphocytes (CD3+ T cells) and T-cell subsets (CD8+ T cells), as well as the secretion of the T-cell related cytokines interleukin (IL)-2, interferon-γ, IL-4 and granzyme B. | Liu et al. (2018) |
| Phosphamidon (0–20 μM; 6–24 h) | Fueled cytochrome c mediated mortality, DNA fragmentation and reduced GSH levels in human PBMCs. | Co-administration of N-acetyl cysteine (20 μM; 6–24 h) and curcumin (25 μM; 6–24 h) attenuated mortality in human PBMCs. | Ahmed et al. (2010) |
| Chlorpyrifos (6.75 mg/kg; 8 weeks) and Profenofos (20 mg/kg; 8 weeks) | Reduced IgG, IgM levels and increased TNF-α level | Propolis (70 mg/kg; 8 weeks) and ginseng (200 mg/kg; 8 weeks) increased IgG and IgM; lowered TNF-α level. | Hamza et al. (2013) |
| Chlorpyrifos (75 mg/L; 3–9 weeks) | Decreased macrophage activity, serum lysozyme activity and levels of interleukin-2 (IL-2) and IL-6 in rats | Co-administration of ZnO nanoparticles (200 mg/L; 3–9 weeks) ameliorated undesirable effects of CPF through elevation of macrophage and serum lysozyme activities, increased the levels of IL-2 and IL-6; corrected the oxidative stress markers. | Essa et al. (2019) |
| Chlorpyrifos (10.6 mg/kg; 17 weeks) | Attributed to neutropenia, lymphopenia, and monocytopenia in Wistar rats | Vitamin C (100 mg/kg; 17 weeks) ameliorated the subnormal count of leucocytes. | Saafi et al., 2011 |
| Diazinon (10 mg/kg; 30 days) | Reduced relative lymphocyte and monocyte counts, immunoglobulin concentration, hemagglutination titer, delayed type hypersensitivity, blood mononuclear cell proliferation, phagocytic index and blood T-cell subtypes (CD4+ and CD8+) in rats | Co-administration of Hesperidin (25 mg/kg; 30 days) was able to normalize most of the hematological and immunological parameters. | Hassouna et al. (2015) |
| Chlorpyrifos (13.5 mg/kg/day; 1–2 weeks) | Decreased lymphocyte viability, neutrophil phagocytic index, total white blood cells count, relative lymphocyte count and IgG concentration | Pre and post-treatment with silymarin (70 mg/kg/day; 1–2 weeks) improved the lymphocyte viability, total white blood cell count and relative lymphocyte count. Silymarin also recovered phagocytic activity of neutrophils and restored IgG level. |
Elaimy et al. (2016) |
| Chlorpyrifos (13.5 mg/kg; 28 days) | Decreased serum antibody titer, leukocyte migration inhibition (LMI) and macrophage migration inhibition (MMI) | Quercetin (3 mg/kg; 15 days) effectively alleviated chlorpyrifos-induced immunotoxicity. | Suke et al. (2018) |
| Diazinon (20 mg/kg; 4 weeks) | Exerted immunotoxicity as indicated by reduced IFN-γ and increased micronucleus indices of IL-10 and IL-4 in rats | Thymoquinone (2.5–10 mg/kg; 4 weeks) normalized the levels of IFN-γ, IL-10, IL-4 and prevented immunotoxicity. | Danaei and Karami (2017) |
| Ethephon (1995 ppm; 2 months) | Leucocytosis, neutrophilia, monocytosis, lymphocytopenia; reduced serum hemolyzing antibody titer, declined phagocytic activity of polymorphonuclear cells were recorded in mice. | Green tea extract (2 g of tea leaves/100 mL; 2 months) normalized lymphocyte count; improved humoral immune response and delayed type hypersensitivity reaction; partially ameliorated phagocytic activity of neutrophils. | Abou-Zeid et al. (2018) |