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. 2021 Jan 9;22(2):618. doi: 10.3390/ijms22020618

Table 3.

Pharmacological activities of Parkia species extracts and fractions.

Activity Species Part Type of Extract/Compound Key Findings References
Antimicrobial P. biglobosa Leaf, stem bark, and root Methanolic and aqueous Active against S. aureus, B. subtilis, E. coli, P. aeruginosa. [38]
P. biglobosa Root bark Aqueous and methanol Active against E. coli, S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa.
Activity: Aqueous > methanol		 [34]
P. biglobosa Leaves and pod Aqueous and ethanol Active against S. aureus, E. aerogenes, S. typi, S. typhimurium, Shigella spp., E. coli, and P. aeruginosa (bacteria), Mucor spp., and Rhizopus spp. (fungi) [133]
P. biglobosa Bark and leaves Hydro-alcohol and aqueous Active against E. coli, S. enterica, and S. dysenteriae. Activity: hydroalcoholic > aqueous [65]
P. speciosa Seeds Water suspension Active against S. aureus, A. hydrophila, S. agalactiae, S. anginosus, and V. parahaemolyticus isolated from moribund fishes and shrimps [143]
P. speciosa Seed peel Ethyl acetate (EA) Hexane
Ethanol		 EA: Four times higher than streptomycin against S. aureus and three times higher for E. coli. Hexane: 50% inhibitory ability of streptomycin for both bacteria. Ethanol: no inhibition [148]
P. speciosa Pod extract and its silver Aqueous Pod: active against P. aeruginosa Silver particles: active against P. aeruginosa [145]
P. speciosa Sapwood, heartwood, and bark Methanol Bark: Active against G. trabeum. Sapwood and heartwood: No effect [147]
P. speciosa Seeds Chloroform, petroleum ether, Aqueous and methanol Active against H. pylori except aqueous extract. Activity: chloroform > methanol > petroleum ether [222]
P. speciosa Seed Methanol
Ethyl acetate		 Methanol: active against H. pylori. Ethyl acetate: active against E. coli
Both: no effect on S. typhimurium, S. typhi, and S sonnei 		[144]
P. javanica Stem bark Methanol Good inhibitory activity against E. coli, S. aureus S. pyogenes found in chronic wound [223]
P. javanica Stem bark Methanol Active against four Vibrio cholerae strains [224]
P. javanica Leaves Gold and silver nanoparticles Good inhibitory activity against S. aureus [151]
P. javanica Bark Methanol extract and semi-polar fractions (chloroform and ethyl acetate) Active against Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Chloroform showed the best activity [97]
P. javanica Seeds, leaves and skin pods Aqueous Active against S. aureus, A. hydrophila, and S. typhimurium Not active against E. coli [152]
P. clappertoniana Leaves and barks Ethanol Active against Salmonellae and Shigella [73]
P. clappertoniana Stem bark and leaves Aqueous and methanol Active against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa.
Methanol extract was more potent		 [71]
P. biglandulosa Leaf Methanol Active against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus [154]
P. filicoidea Stem barks Aqueous, acetone and ethanol Active against S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. viridans and B. subtilis. Not active against E. coli [50]
P. bicolor Leaves Ethyl acetate, ethanol and aqueous Active against E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, A. niger, B. cereus and a fungus, C. utilis [23]
P. bicolor Roots Methanol, ethyl acetate and Aqueous Active against C. diphtheria, K. pneumoniae, P. mirabilis, S. typhi, and S. pyogenes [28]
P. pendula Seeds Lectin Reduced cellular infectivity of human cytomegalovirus in human embryo lung (HEL) cells. [225]
Hypoglycemic P. speciosa Seeds and pods Chloroform Strong glucose-lowering activity in alloxan-induced diabetic rats
Activity: seeds > pod		 [157]
P. speciosa Rind, leaves and seeds Ethanol Inhibited α-glucosidase activity in rat
Activity: rind > leaf > seed		 [158]
P. speciosa Seed Chloroform Reduced plasma glucose levels in alloxan-induced diabetic rats [120]
P. biglobosa Fermented seeds Methanol and aqueous Reduced fasting plasma glucose in alloxan-induced diabetic rats [160,161]
P. biglobosa Seeds Protein Significantly increased lipid peroxidation product levels in brain and testes of diabetic rats [226]
P. biglobosa Seeds Methanol and fractions (chloroform and n-hexane) Showed glucose-lowering effect
Activity: chloroform > methanol > n-hexane		 [40]
P. javanica Fruits Ethyl acetate fraction Reduced blood glucose inhibited α-glucosidase and α-amylase in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats [18]
Antitumor/
Anticancer		 P javanica Fruits Aqueous methanol Increased apoptosis in sarcoma-180 cancer cell lines [227]
P javanica Seeds Methanol Caused 50% death in HepG2 (liver cancer cell) but not cytotoxic to normal cells [44]
P javanica Seeds Lectin Inhibited proliferation in cancerous cell lines; P388DI and J774, B-cell hybridoma and HB98 cell line [173]
P. speciosa Seed coats Methanol extract Demonstrated selective cytotoxicity to MCG-7 and T47D (breast cancer), HCT-116 (colon cancer) [228]
P. speciosa Pods Methanolic ethyl acetate fraction Showed selective cytotoxicity on breast cancer cells MCF-7 [170]
P. biglobosa Leaves and stem Methanol Antiproliferative effect in human cancer cells T-549, BT-20, and PC-3 [174]
P. filicoidea Leaves Methanol Antiproliferative effect in in human cancer cells T-549, BT-20, and PC-3 [174]
Antiproliferative and anti-mutagenic P. biglandulosa Seeds Lectin T cell mitogen and antiproliferative against P388DI and J774 cancer cell lines [173]
Antihypertensive P. speciosa Seeds Aqueous Showed moderate ACE-inhibitory activity in in vitro [191]
P. speciosa Seeds Peptide Inhibited angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in rats. No effect observed in non-hydrolyzed samples [189,190]
P. speciosa Pods Methanol Prevented the increases in blood pressure and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and restored nitric oxide in hypertensive rat model [112]
P. biglobosa Stem bark Aqueous Induced hypotension in adrenaline-induced hypertensive rabbits [181]
P. biglobosa Roasted and fermented seeds Aqueous Induced relaxation in rat aorta precontracted with phenylephrine in the presence or absence of endothelium. [180]
P. biglobosa fermented seeds Aqueous Lower blood pressure, blood glucose, and heart rate, high level of magnesium as well as improved lipid profile in patients with hypertension [178]
Antidiarrheal P. biglobosa Stem bark Aqueous and fractions The extract of stem bark exhibit dose-dependent antidiarrheal activity at different concentrations in albino rats with castor oil-induced diarrhea [45]
P. biglobosa Leaves and stem bark Aqueous and ethanol Reduced frequency of stooling in castor-oil induced diarrhea in rats [193]
P. biglobosa Stem-bark 70% Methanol The extract exhibited 100% protections at 100 and 200 mg/kg bw in the diarrheal rats [59]
P. filicoidea Stem bark Aqueous Reduced frequency of stooling and improved transit time at 100 and 200 mg/kg bw [192]
Antiulcer P. speciosa Leaves Ethanol Reduced mucosal injury and increased in periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) staining induced by ethanol [198]
P. speciosa Seed Ethanol Decreased gastric juice acidity, lesion length, collagen content and fibrosis in indomethacin-induced peptic ulcer in rats [197]
P. platycephala Leaves Ethanol Reduced gastric mucosal lesion induced by ethanol, ischemia-reperfusion and ethanol-HCl [199]
Antianemic
 P. biglobosa Combination of fermented seed with other fermented products Aqueous Increased hemoglobin, red blood cell, white blood cell levels and packed cell volume in albino rats [204]
P. biglobosa Seeds Ethanol Increased hemoglobin levels in NaNO2-induced anemic mice [205]
P. speciosa Seeds Ethanol Increased hemoglobin levels in NaNO2-induced anemic mice [205]
Antiangiogenic
 P.biglandulosa Fruit and β-sitosterol Ethanol The extract and the isolated compound showed antiangiogenic activity on the caudal fin of adult zebrafish [175]
P. speciosa Pods Methanol and water sub-extract Inhibited more than 50% micro vessel outgrowth in rat aortae and HUVECs [170]
Antimalarial P. biglobosa Stem bark Methanol and fractions Showed antiplasmodial activity caused by P. berghei and P. falciparum [11]
Nephroprotective P. clappertoniana Seed Aqueous Reduced serum creatinine, Na, urine proteins and leukocytes and kidney weight in gentamicin-induced renal damage in rats [75]
Hepatoprotective P. biglobosa Stem barks Methanol Reduced serum alanine and aspartate transaminases, and alkaline phosphatase in paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity rat model [216]
Wound healing P. pendula Seeds Lectin Increased skin wound repair in immunosuppressed mice [217]
Anti-inflammatory P. speciosa Pods Ethyl acetate fraction Reduced iNOS activity, COX-2, VCAM-1 and NF-κB expressions in cardiomyocytes exposed to tumor necrosis factor-α [229]
P. speciosa Pods Ethyl acetate fraction Reduced iNOS activity, COX-2, VCAM-1 and NF-κB expressions in HUVECs exposed to tumor necrosis factor-α [230]
P. biglobosa Stalk Methanol Inhibited croton pellet granuloma formation and carrageenin-induced rat paw edema [206]
P. biglobosa Seeds Lectin Lectin showed anti-inflammatory effect by inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine release and stimulation of anti-inflammatory cytokine release on peritonitis induced model mice [208]
P. biglobosa Stem bark Hexane Reduced carrageenan- and PMA-induced edema in mice [29]
P. biglobosa Fruit 70% Methanol Increased percentage protection of the human red blood cell membrane [209]
P. platycephala Seeds Lectin Lectin showed antinociceptive effect in the mouse model of acetic acid-induced [207]
Antioxidant P. javanica Leaves Hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol Methanol extract showed the highest antioxidant potential activities (DPPH test) of about 85% and (FRAP test) of about 0.9 mM Fe (II)/g dry [231]
P. javanica Leaves Aqueous, ethanol and methanol All the extracts exhibited good antioxidant activity. The aqueous extract showed the highest values of 47.42 and 26.6 mg of ascorbic acid equivalent/g in DPPH and FRAP tests, respectively [232]
P. javanica Pods Methanol and acetone High content of total phenolic and flavonoid. Showed high reducing power and strong radical scavenging activity. [212]
P. javanica Fruit Methanol Showed increased DPPH and ferric-reducing power activities concentration-dependently [210]
P. speciosa Pod Methanol Increased DPPH scavenging activity [233]
P. speciosa Pod Ethyl acetate fraction Reduced NOX4, SOD1, p38 MAPK protein expressions and ROS level [230]
P. speciosa Pod Aqueous and ethanolic Increased DPPH and ABTS scavenging activities, reduced lipid peroxidation Activity: ethanol > aqueous [107]
P. speciosa Seeds Ethanol Extract exhibited significant activity (DPPH and FRAP tests) [213]
P. speciosa Seed coats and pods Ethanol Reduced Heinz body formation in erythrocytes incubated with acetyl phenylhydrazine.
Activity: seed coat > pods >		 [215]
P. speciosa Pods Ethanol Increased DPPH scavenging activity [234]
P. biglobosa Fermented and unfermented seed Aqueous Fermented seed increased reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+. [211]
P. biglobosa Stem bark Aqueous-methanolic Mitigated ferric-induced lipid peroxidation in rat tissues and increased scavenging activities against DPPH and ABTS, ferric-reducing ability [235]
P. biglobosa Fruit Methanol and hydro-ethanol Increased DPPH scavenging activity and reducing power. [210]
P. biglobosa Fruit Hydroethanolic and methanol Increased scavenging activity against DPPH free radical
Activity: methanol > hydroethanolic		 [210]

Abbreviations: HUVECs, human umbilical vein endothelial cells; DPPH, 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazy; ABTS, 2,20-Azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) diammonium salt; FRAP, ferric reducing antioxidant power; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; PMA, phorbol myristate acetate; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; VCAM-1, vascular cell adhesion moelcule-1; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-B; ACE, angiotensin converting enzyme; HEL, human embryo lung; PAS, periodic acid-Schiff; bw, body weight.