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. 2021 Jan 11;13(2):231. doi: 10.3390/polym13020231

Table 3.

Illustration of the effect of nanocrystalline cellulose on biopolymer matrix.

Source of Nanocrystalline Cellulose Source of Biopolymer The Effect of the Reinforcement Ref.
Maize starch Polylactic acid
  • -

    Addition of starch NCC filler showed the PLA nanocomposite to have high potential to improve the oxygen barrier and tensile properties.

  • -

    Provided better filler dispersion and interaction with the matrix.

 [212]
Nata-de-coco Polylactic acid
  • -

    Enhancement in viscoelastic properties up to 175% in terms of storage modulus in bending.

  • -

    Addition of 2 wt% nanocellulose into PLA resulted in moderate strength improvement.

 [213]
Bamboo pulp Polylactic acid
  • -

    PLA-grafted NCC (PLA-g-NCC) films display uniform dispersion of NCC due to the efficient grafting, results in enhancement in tensile strength.

  • -

    The elastic and crystallinity properties of the nanocomposites improved with increasing of NCC loadings.

 [214]
Coffee silver skin Polylactic acid
  • -

    NCC with loading of 3 wt% in PLA film enhanced water barrier and mechanical properties of nanocomposites.

  • -

    Nanocomposite with NCC can overcome drawbacks of biopolymer film.

 [215]
Microcrystalline cellulose Polylactic acid
  • -

    NCC-reinforced PLA exhibited improvement in thermal, mechanical, and UV barrier properties.

 [216]
Microcrystalline cellulose Polylactic acid
  • -

    The reinforcement of the polyethylene glycol (PEG) and NCC improved the crystallinity of the PLA.

  • -

    The impact and the elongation at break increased from 0.864 to 2.64 kJ, and 22 from 11% to 106.0%, respectively.

 [217]
Microcrystalline cellulose Polylactic acid
  • -

    The addition of NCC into the PLA showed an increment on tensile strength of PLA and PLA-g-silane nanofiber.

  • -

    The modified PLA nanocomposite considered as a practical candidate for hard tissue engineering applications according to cytotoxicity results.

 [218]
Microcrystalline cellulose Polylactic acid
  • -

    Acetylation can improve the performance of the composite by enabling linkages between carbonyl groups, helping to establish a good stress transfer between the fiber and the matrix.

 [219]
Nanocrystalline cellulose Polyhydroxy acids
  • -

    Nanocellulose-reinforced PHA films improved the mechanical properties by 23% compared to neat PHA samples.

  • -

    Increase of the crystallinity and stiffness of the nanocomposites.

  • -

    Surface roughness of the nanocomposites was increased, which contributed to better interlaminar bonding in multi-layer composites applications.

  • -

    Presence of UV blocking effect.

 [220]
Kenaf Polyhydroxy acids
  • -

    Improve the conductivity of the polymer nanocomposites.

 [221]
Bleached pulp board Polyhydroxybutyrate
  • -

    Nanocellulose worked as heterogeneous nucleating agent in PHB.

  • -

    Crystallinity of polymer was reduced and improved the toughness of PHB.

  • -

    The mechanical properties of the nanocomposites such as Young’s modulus and elongation at break increased by 18.4% and 91.2%, respectively.

 [222]
Nanocrystalline cellulose Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)
  • -

    NCC was dispersed evenly in GMA-g-PHBV.

  • -

    Limited reinforcement observed despite enhanced dispersion relative to the neat PHBV matrix due to the hydrophobization surface of NCC.

 [223]
Nanocrystalline cellulose Polybutylene succinate
  • -

    Restricted the mobility of polymer chains and promoted nucleation and recrystallization of polymer.

  • -

    Degree of crystallinity increased from 65.9 to 75.6%.

  • -

    The tensile strength increased from 23.2 MPa to 32.9 MPa.

  • -

    Oxygen transmission rate of PBS films was decreased from 737.7 to 280 cc/m2/day.

  • -

    Water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) of PBS films decreased from 83.8 to 49.4 g/m2/day.

 [224]
Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) Poly(butylene succinate) (PBS)/polylactic acid (PLA)
  • -

    Impact strength, moduli, and crystallinity of the nanocomposites increased.

  • -

    Thermal stability, storage modulus, glass translation temperature of nanocomposites increased.

 [225]
Cotton Cationic starch
  • -

    Increased in tensile strength, oil, and air resistance of the coated paper composites with the optimized amount for the NCC nanoparticles was 5 wt%.

  • -

    Water absorption of the coated paper composite decreased by 50% at 5 wt% NCC concentration.

 [226]
Eggshell Corn starch
  • -

    The eggshell nanofiller was uniformly dispersed and reinforced within film matrix.

  • -

    Tensile properties, thermal stability, water vapor, and oxygen barrier properties were also tremendously improved as compared to pure starch film.

 [227]
Orange peel Starch
  • -

    Significant improvement of water barrier properties at 2 wt% concentration.

  • -

    Well dispersed in starch matrix during formation of biofilms.

  • -

    Act as compatibilizer.

 [228]
Rattan biomass Sago starch
  • -

    Rattan NCC filler decreased the water uptake of the bionanocomposite.

 [229]
Water hyacinth Bengkuang (Pachyrhizus erosus) starch
  • -

    60 min vibrated water hyacinth NCC/bengkuang bionanocomposites had slow biodegradation rate.

  • -

    The optimum 60 min vibrated samples resulted in high thermal stability and low moisture absorption rate.

 [230]
Sugar palm fiber Sugar palm
starch
  • -

    Improvement in the water barrier property and water vapor permeability (WVP) of the nano composite film by 19.94%.

  • -

    Improvement in mechanical, thermal, and physical properties.

 [231,232]
Kenaf fibers Cassava starch
  • -

    Enhancement in the tensile strength and modulus of the biocomposite films.

  • -

    Decreased the water absorption by the biocomposite or the water sensitivity.

 [233]
Garlic stalks Corn starch
  • -

    Scanning electron micrographs of the films showed homogeneous dispersion of nanocrystalline cellulose in the starch matrix.

  • -

    Improvement in tensile strength and modulus and improvement in moisture property.

 [234]
Kenaf fibers k-carrageenan
  • -

    The biocomposite showed enhancement in mechanical properties and thermal stability.

  • -

    The biocomposite film shows a good dispersion of the cellulosic fiber on the starch matrix.

 [235]
Sugarcane bagasse fiber Maize starch
  • -

    Improvement in water vapor barrier properties with addition of nanocrystalline cellulose.

 [236]
Cotton cellulosepowders Plasticized starch
  • -

    Improvement in the thermal stability, mechanical properties, and air permeability.

 [171]
Potato peelwaste Potato starch
  • -

    Enhancement in tensile modulus and water permeability property.

 [237]
Sugarcane Bagasse Tapioca Starch
  • -

    The nanocellulose was found in good dispersion in starch-based tapioca biocomposite.

  • -

    Resulting in good adhesion bonding.

  • -

    Improved tensile strength up to 20.84 MPa with the incorporation of 4% nanocellulose.

 [238]